Marine fish and shellfish

Status of commercial fish and shellfish: No area assessment with many concerns

Status of demersal fish: Stable with few or no concerns

(Baxter et al, 2011)

Status of fish: Improving situation since 2012

Status of commercial fish and shellfish: Improving situation since 2012

Status of food webs: Improving situation since 2012

(United Kingdom Marine Monitoring & Assessment Strategy, n.d)

Marine fish and shellfish are of vital importance to the Solway, as they are to all marine areas. They are a key element of food webs, help indicate the health of a marine ecosystem, and provide socio-economic benefits through commercial and recreational fishing.

It is worth noting that there are huge amounts of data, information, advice, and guidance relating to fishing in England and Scotland available, and if readers are interested in a particular type of fish are advised to do further reading on that species and fisheries rules, for example Scotland’s Future fisheries: management strategy – 2020 to 2030. For more information on recreational sea angling on both sides of the Solway visit Solway Firth Partnership’s Recreational Sea Angling page here.

There are well over 100 species of marine fish and shellfish in the Solway with 130 species recorded in the Firth in 1993 (Potts and Swaby), some of which are of commercial importance. The focus of the discussion below is on species of commercial importance to the Solway and why the Solway is important for marine fish and shellfish. The Productive chapter of the Solway Review provides socio-economic analyses for both the Scottish and English sides of the Solway Firth for Sea Fisheries, as well as other industries which rely on the Firth and fish or shellfish species therein, such as Aquaculture, and the chain of Processing for Fisheries and Aquaculture.

Fish species can be identified as demersal or pelagic species depending on their distribution and feeding behaviours. Pelagic species are those which live and feed in the ‘pelagic zone’ of the sea, otherwise known as the water column. Pelagic fish are commonly found in shoals swimming in mid-water and undertake wide ranging seasonal movements or migrations. Pelagic species is a broad term covering a range of species of various sizes and which favour different environments, including large species such as elasmobranchs (see Shark, skates and rays), and smaller species such as mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and herring (Clupea harengus). Demersal species are those which live on, or close to the seabed. They can be further divided into two main categories, benthic (lives on the sea floor) and benthopelagic (float just above the sea floor). Most demersal species gather in late winter or spring in recognisable spawning grounds to release their tiny free-floating eggs. These hatch into larvae which feed on and move with the plankton over distances of up to several hundred kilometres before becoming tiny fish, which gather in inshore nursery grounds. Demersal species include fish such as cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). Shellfish is a general term for fish with an exoskeleton (shell) such as molluscs or crustaceans. Stocks are uncertain for both pelagic and demersal fish, but have more certainty in terms of shellfish stocks.

Image; Boat on the Solway. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant

Marine fish and shellfish

Quotas

As a result of Brexit, the UK is no longer part of the EU and is now an independent coastal state, and therefore no longer bound to the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). The CFP was designed to ensure fairness of fishing throughout the EU, giving equal access to all member states to Europe’s waters. This meant that although other member states could fish in the UK’s waters, the UK could also fish elsewhere, however the UK has both a large marine area, and productive waters, meaning the ability of the UK to fish out with our own waters is of limited benefit.

There is a helpful synopsis of some of the changes in the UK fishing industry summarised in a BBC article. There is an ongoing ‘adjustment period’ in which the ability of EU boats to fish in UK waters will reduce. EU boats can continue to fish in UK waters but the UK will get an increasing share of fish in UK waters over 2021 – 2026, after which annual negotiations will take place and the UK technically will have the ability to exclude EU fishing boats.

The UK will increase their share of fishing quota, a 25% increase of the value of the EU catch in UK waters gradually over the next 5 years.

In June 2021 the annual fisheries negotiations between the UK and EU were concluded for the remainder of 2021, with the Total Allowable Catches (TACs) being set for 70 fish stocks, and superseding provisional limits set earlier in 2021.

Some of key points taken from the Government Press Release (2021) are noted below;

• ‘The annual negotiations for 2021, in which the UK participated as an independent coastal State outside of the Common Fisheries Policy, follow the signing of the Trade and Cooperation Agreement between the UK and EU.
• The UK will have roughly £27m more quota in these 70 stocks than that which was allocated in 2020. This figure takes into account the UK’s new, larger, shares of quota under the Trade and Cooperation Agreement as well as Total Allowable Catch reductions which were made for sustainability reasons.
• As an independent coastal State with a commitment to achieving sustainable fisheries the UK is taking a more rigorous approach to assessing MSY in relation to negotiated outcomes ‘

As a result of this agreement the UK has ~26,000 tonnes more quota compared to 2020, and interim fishing quota exchange will continue with an exchange system being established by the Specialised Committee on Fisheries.

Marine Scotland receives a portion of the UK TAC quota as defined in the UK Quota Management Rules (2021 rules available here). Information of Scottish quota management is available here.

The Secretary of State determines fishing opportunities for British fishing boats for certain stocks, including the maximum quantity of sea fish that may be caught by British fishing boats and the maximum number of days that British fishing boats may spend at sea. The most recent determination of fishing opportunities published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in April 2021 can be found here.

In 2021 the UK and Norway failed to reach an agreement on fishing, meaning there is no access to Norway’s waters for UK fisheries (BBC News, 2021). Nevertheless, setting TACs and negotiations with other countries is an important part of sustainably managing fishing, as stocks do not restrict movement to a specific country’s waters, migrating and straddling multiple jurisdictions. Tackling fishing levels on an international basis protects the UK’s stocks from being overfished.

In the EU, as part of the reformed Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), an agreement was reached to include the landing obligation, otherwise known as the discard ban. Under this agreement, unwanted fish may no longer be thrown back into the sea. Instead, all fish subject to quota must be kept and landed and counted against quota. The discard ban is being introduced over a number of years, and started in 2015 with pelagic fisheries in the Baltic. As of 2021, the UK has left the European Union, however the landing obligation remains (as of Feb 2021), applied to all commercial (not recreational) fishing vessels, see; Marine Management Organisation Statutory Guidance, and Marine Scotland’s Fishing vessel landing obligation guidance 2021. Fish caught below Minimum Conservation Reference Size (MCRS) (which replaced the term ‘minimum landing size’) are included in the landing obligation.

Image; Fishing on the Solway (Smokehouse Fishing in Scotland). © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant.

Marine fish and shellfish

In the Solway

In 1993 there were 130 species (Potts and Swaby) of fish recorded in the Solway not including the many species of shellfish which are also found here.

The majority of the fishing fleet in the Solway is involved in shellfish fishing for scallops, Nephrops, whelks, and small amounts of pelagic (e.g. herring, mackerel) and demersal (cod, whiting, plaice, sole, dogfish) fish are also landed by the local fleet. See the Sea Fisheries section of the Solway Review for a socio-economic analysis of the fishing sector in the Solway Firth.

The North Western Inshore Fisheries Conservation Authority (NWIFCA) oversees the English side of the Solway Firth, covering the marine area out to 6 nautical miles (nm). There are an additional 9 IFCAs around the English coast. IFCAs are required to manage the exploitation of sea fisheries resources, in a sustainable and balanced (socio-economic and environmental interests, different needs of fishers etc) way. Formed in 2011 (under Statutory Instrument 2200 (2010) following the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009), the NWIFCA merged the previous Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee and North West Sea Fisheries Committee into one district.

In Scotland, Inshore Fisheries Groups (IFGs) are non-statutory bodies that aim to improve the management of Scotland’s inshore fisheries out to 6 nm and to give commercial inshore fishermen a strong voice in wider marine management developments. The West Coast Regional Inshore Fisheries Group (RIFG) covers the west coast of Scotland. Simon Macdonald is Chair of the West Coast RIFG which covers the Solway area.

Spawning and Nursery Grounds

The Solway is important for spawning and nursery grounds for a variety of fish species, including some of commercial importance. Maps of main spawning and nursery grounds for 14 commercially important species were prepared for the report ‘Coul et al 1998’. This data layer is available from the Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) here, and shows the importance of the outer Solway in particular for both spawning and nursery grounds for commercially important fish species. Solway spawning grounds are used by sprat (Sprattus sprattus), Nephrops (Nephrops norvegicus), whiting (Merlangius merlangus), herring (Clupea harengus), cod (Gadus morhua), plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), and sole (Solea solea). Within the data of all the species mapped for spawning and nursery grounds sprat is the only fish which uses the Inner Solway as spawning grounds. According to this data the Solway also has nursery grounds for Nephrops, herring, whiting, plaice, sole, cod and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). (Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, 1998). In particular the Solway provides important nursery areas for flatfish in the larger estuaries such as Luce Bay, Wigtown Bay and the inner Solway.

More up-to-date information was published by the DEFRA in 2010, where spawning and nursery areas of 40 species to be considered of conservation importance were mapped. The majority of the Solway is also important nursery grounds for spurdog (Squalus acanthias), and is used for nursery grounds (with low intensity) by tope (Galeorhinus galeus), thornback ray (Raja clavata) and spotted ray (Raja montagui). The DEFRA 2010 data also indicated the presence of herring larvae in the Solway, indicating spawning grounds, and reiterated the use of the Solway as high intensity nursery grounds for herring. Similarly, the Solway was, again, found to be extensively used, with varying intensities, as spawning and nursery grounds for cod, whiting, plaice, and sole.

Spawning grounds throughout the Solway were highlighted for sandeels, as well as nursery grounds in the inner Solway, both with low intensity.

Low intensity spawning and nursery grounds were recorded in the Solway for mackerel, although the majority of spawning and nursery grounds for mackerel were shown to be around the far west of the UK and west coast of Ireland. According to this data there were also low intensity nursery grounds for anglerfish in the Solway. (Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, 2010).

The Solway not only provides nursery and spawning grounds, but also migratory passage for both sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) and river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) both to and from spawning and nursery grounds. Both of these species of fish are features of the Solway Firth Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and qualifying interests for the SAC designation (see Protected Areas).

The Draft Sectoral Marine Plan regional locational guidance for offshore wind in Scotland also highlighted in the south west region, and draft site proposed for the Solway (the site did not progress to the final sectoral marine plan, see Energy, aggregates, subsea cables and pipelines) that ‘whilst there are a lack of data available to show available spawning sites for elasmobranch species, there are many known nursery ground areas in the area… including tope, thornback ray, spotted ray, with high-intensity nursery grounds for spurdog and neighbouring common skate nursery grounds’ (Scottish Government, 2019).

The Solway Firth Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ) on the Cumbrian side of the inner Solway has been designated exclusively for the fish species European Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus). The Solway provides habitat for smelt to use before and after migration into freshwater for spawning, for feeding and post-larval development. DEFRA’s MCZ factsheet for the Solway Firth MCZ states that smelt ‘are known to congregate in large shoals in lower estuaries and migrate into freshwater where they spawn in spring. Estuaries such as the Solway Firth therefore provide critical habitats required to complete smelt lifecycles, including for feeding and post-larval development. Historically, smelt were abundant in the Solway Firth and this MCZ will help focus further research to get a better understanding of the current use of the estuary by smelt’ (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2019).

For interested readers there is a Quick ID guide for common juvenile estuarine fish by Harriet Salomonsen, available here.

Image; Smelt © N. Coombey/ Solway Firth Partnership

Marine fish and shellfish

Irish Sea cod

Gadus morhua 

ICES data collected from International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020b)

ICES Landings (2019): 295t

ICES Discards (2019): 7t

ICES advice: ICES advises that when the precautionary approach is applied (this was changed in 2020 from the MSY approach which had been advised for 2017, 2018 and 2019) catches in 2021 should be no more than 93t (116t with an applied uncertainty cap of (x 0.8)). ICES catches and landings of cod in the Irish sea have an overall decreasing trend (some years have increased on the previous) since 2003 when ICES advised the closure of all fisheries for cod. From 2004 to 2012 ICES advice was zero catch, changing to ‘no directed fisheries, minimize bycatch and discards’ and a corresponding catch advice of 0t from 2013 until 2016. Cod (and sole) stocks in the Irish Sea have low stock biomasses. Cod stocks in the Irish Sea have been in serious decline over many years, with ICES landings recorded in 1988 being 14,200t compared to the ICES landings in 2019, which were 295t. The lowest ICES landings recorded since 1988 were in 2016, when only 82t of cod was landed.

Cod are mature by 4 years old, but many reach maturity before this age often by age 2. Cod can live for many years but they are big enough to be caught age 1 and are fully exploited by age 2. Many fish are caught before they have the chance to spawn and less than 1/20 of fish age 1 will survive to the age of 4 (Marine Scotland Science, 2015a). This makes cod stocks vulnerable with limited recruitment.

Cod use the outer areas of the Solway as spawning and nursery grounds. Young cod produced in springtime live in the upper water layers until ~July before becoming demersal. Cod ‘on the west coast, juvenile cod during the first year of life are often found close inshore or around the entrances to sea lochs. As they grow older, they move offshore, although they appear to recruit to nearby adult areas. Cod are active feeders and around three quarters of all cod food consists of fish and crustaceans. Unusual food items are sometimes eaten: small birds, stones, coal and the occasional salmon smolt’ (Marine Scotland Science, 2015a).

In the Solway, cod are particularly common on the predominantly rocky ground well inshore between Harrington and Maryport on the Cumbrian coast during the winter months. There is a recognised spawning ground between the Scallop Bank and the deeper waters to the southeast of Burrow Head on the Dumfries and Galloway coast. Cod normally spawn in the first 4 months of the year (January – April) at which time large catches could traditionally be expected, but numbers have declined markedly in recent years. As illustrated in the Sea Fisheries section of the Solway Review, shellfish make up the vast majority of landings on both the Scottish and English side of the Solway. There are more demersal landings on the English Solway coast, with 152t landed in 2018 compared to 1t landed on the Scottish Solway. However not only is this a fraction of the shellfish landings on the English Solway, which were 1,595t the same year, but it is a reduction of 40% compared to demersal landings in 2013 (255t). For more information see the Sea Fisheries section within the Productive chapter of the Solway Review.

Irish Sea cod stocks are depleted. Landings fell rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s with stocks being assessed as suffering reduced reproductive capacity between 2009 and 2015.

The MMO outlines that, ‘historically, the fishing rate has been very high, spawning stocks have fallen below both the precautionary and the lower limit level, and the abundance of young cod has been in decline since 1990. After 2000, the EU significantly reduced the cod TAC, closed the spawning area in the western Irish Sea during the spawning season, and increased the main whitefish mesh size to 100mm’ (Marine Management Organisation, 2019).

The UK allocation for cod in the Irish Sea for 2021 is 91t, but this is exclusively by-catch, the UK allocation does not permit directed fisheries (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2021). Minimum Conservation Reference Size (MCRS) for cod in UK waters is 35cm.

Image; The side of a fishing vessel. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant

Marine fish and shellfish

Plaice

Pleuronectes platessa

ICES data collected from International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020e)

ICES Landings in 2019: 465t

ICES Discards in 2019: 537t (322t dead discards, 215t live discards)

ICES advice: ICES advises that when the MSY approach is applied, catches in 2021 should be no more than 2,846t.
The fishing rate on Irish Sea plaice has shown a declining trend since the early 1990s and the SSB trends show an increase in stock size since the mid-1990s, and is now much higher than the MSYBtrigger. Discards are now included in the ICES assessment and discard sampling studies have indicated that discarding may be as high as 80% by number.

The coastal areas of the Solway Firth are used by plaice as a nursery ground, spawning in the early months of the year (January – March) in the western outer Solway, particularly in the area between the Machars, Ross and St Bees Head.

Plaice are the most common commercially caught flat fish to be found in the Solway. They usually migrate into inshore waters, preferring soft muddy bottoms, towards the end of March, becoming widespread throughout the area during the summer and autumn. Plaice feed on a variety of worms and small shellfish (mainly mussels and tellins) and there are several known nursery grounds where large amounts of immature fish can be found, particularly during spring and early summer.

The UK allocation for plaice in the Irish Sea in 2021 is 1,455t (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2021). MCRS for plaice in UK waters is 27cm. There is an inherited Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee Byelaw (byelaw 20) on minimum mesh sizes for the protection of immature plaice, which applies to part of the Solway Firth between ~Maryport and Whitehaven. More information on NWIFCA plaice fisheries management is available here.

Image; Plaice © N. Coombey/ Solway Firth Partnership

Marine fish and shellfish

European Lobster

Homarus gammarus

The taking of lobsters is widespread, occurring well inshore around the more exposed and rocky parts of the Cumbrian and Dumfries & Galloway coasts. The season is generally from April to October when creels, or pots as they are known in England, are set well inshore between Whitehaven and Allonby Bay on the Cumbrian coast, and between the Mull of Galloway and Balcary Point, including Luce Bay and Wigtown Bay, on the Scottish side. Lobsters form a valuable part of landings on both the Scottish and English Solway. In 2018 the value of lobster landings in the English Solway was £134,000, significantly increased from the value landed in 2013, £29,000. Scottish Solway landings of lobster in 2018 were worth £717,000, again increasing from the 2013 value of £434,000.

This fishery is mainly regulated by Minimum Landing Sizes. Insufficient data from sampling of landings means that analytical stock assessments have not been undertaken for the Solway Firth region.

Minimum landing size for Homarus gammarus is variable throughout Scotland for males. In 2018 the minimum landing size for male lobsters was established as 88mm carapace length for the entire coast of Scotland with the exception of the Solway, rising to 90mm in 2019. This means 90mm is the minimum landing size for lobsters around most of Scotland. The Solway has a minimum landing size of 87mm for males, and a maximum landing size of 145mm carapace length for females (which is the same for the whole of Scotland with the exception of Shetland and Orkney), maps are available here. There was consultation prior to these new management measures in 2016 where Solway Firth respondents (and respondents from the east coast) opposed the increased minimum landing size for male lobsters. The UK MCRS for lobster (which must be landed whole) is 87mm, this size is reiterated on the NWIFCA), making 87mm the minimum catch size across the whole Solway. More information on lobsters and how fishing is managed in the NWIFCA District is available here.

There is an inherited Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee Byelaw (byelaw 26) meaning a permit is required to fish for lobster (Homarus gammarus), crab (Cancer pagurus), or whelk (Buccinum undatum) within the Cumbrian Solway. The Lake District Coast Aquarium in Maryport has a lobster hatchery in which berried lobsters are kept until eggs can be removed and the lobsters returned. The eggs are kept in aquarium tanks until the larval stages are complete, returning juveniles to the sea. The hatchery provides a valuable educational tool as well as helping lobsters develop past vulnerable stages.

The predecessor to the West Coast RIFG, the South West IFG ran two projects in the Solway in 2015: a trial introduction of creel escape panels and a lobster v-notching scoping study – Leaflet on Creel Fishery Study. The projects were aimed at conserving valuable commercial stocks to ensure the long term sustainability of the local crab and lobster fisheries. Enabled by IFG project funding, the projects were taken forward in a partnership between local creel fishermen, scientists and Solway Firth Partnership.

Creel escape panels are used in other parts of the UK and abroad and are designed to allow juvenile crab and lobster to escape unharmed. The measure also reduces the time it takes to clear pots so has benefits for both stock conservation and the working practice of fishermen.

Because female lobsters are not berried (egg bearing) all year round it’s not always possible to distinguish breeding stock.  A scoping study was also carried out in the Solway to explore the potential for v-notching which is a way of harmlessly marking breeding lobsters by cutting a notch in the tail. Landing v-notched lobsters is prohibited and the notch can take several years to grow out. As female lobsters can produce between 10 and 15 thousand eggs, protecting breeding stock is also protecting the future of the fishery.

Dr Peter Duncan and Dr Bryony Pearce worked alongside Galloway Static Gear Fishermen’s Association and Solway Firth Partnership on project implementation which included a series of presentations on creel fishery management options.

Image; Lobsters. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant

Marine fish and shellfish

Edible Crab

Cancer pagurus

Edible crabs have a thick oval shell and are brown with black claw tips, which is why it is also known as the ‘brown crab’. They are active predators found between the intertidal zone and subtidal zone down to depths around 100m. They have variable growth rates, depending on their gender, age, environment and food, maturing at around 11cm and mating in the spring/summer. Juveniles move to subtidal areas after remaining in the intertidal area until they reach 6-7cm carapace width (~3 years). Edible crabs have a hard shell which does not grow with them, instead they need to shed their shell in a process called moulting. Once crabs have shed their shell they are soft and vulnerable until a new shell grows and hardens.

The edible crab is more widespread than the lobster and is found in similar areas, but there is no directed fishery in the Firth. However, a significant number are landed as bycatch. The main regulatory mechanism for crab fishing is MCRS, although fishing effort for crabs and scallops is managed in ICES area VII, including the Solway through the ‘Western Waters Days at Sea scheme’. According to the MMO; ‘It was decided that days at sea limits will be set for vessels operating in this area for the full 2021 year. This will be enforced via a licence variation. The limit set out… will be applicable to all over 15 metre vessels with a shellfish entitlement operating in area VII and targeting crabs under the Western Waters regime…If the UK looks like it will exceed effort limits prior to 31 December 2021 as set by the MMO, then fisheries administrations will be required to close the area VII crab fishery to over 15 metre vessels for the remainder of the year in line with the Western Waters regime’ (Marine Management Organisation, 2021). More information is available here.

Insufficient data from sampling of landings means that analytical stock assessments have not been undertaken for the Solway Firth region.

There is an inherited Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee Byelaw (byelaw 26) meaning a permit is required to fish for lobster (Homarus gammarus), crab (Cancer pagurus), or whelk (Buccinum undatum) within the Cumbrian Solway. MCRS for edible crab in the NWIFCA district is 130mm. New landing controls came into effect in Scotland in 2019. The minimum landing size for edible crab in Scotland is 150mm across the width of the carapace.

Image; Edible crab. © N. Coombey/ Solway Firth Partnership

Marine fish and shellfish

Velvet Crab

Necora puber/ Liocarcinus puber

Velvet crab, also known as ‘velvet swimming crab’ and ‘devil crab’, has become as increasingly popular fishery in the Solway Firth as fishers look to diversify their catch to compensate for the loss of other reduced stocks. This species of crab is covered in short hairs, has bright red eyes and is fast moving helping them capture prey like fish in addition to slower prey. This fishery is mainly regulated by MCRS. Insufficient data from sampling of landings means that analytical stock assessments have not been undertaken for the Solway Firth region.

MCRS for velvet crab in the NWIFCA district is 65mm. New landing controls came into effect in Scotland in 2019. The minimum landing size for velvet crab in Scotland is 70mm at the widest part of the carapace, indicative maps are available here.

Image; Velvet crab. © N. Coombey/ Solway Firth Partnership.

Marine fish and shellfish

Shrimp/ Brown Shrimp

Crangon crangon

While shrimps are found on most of the inshore fishing grounds of the Solway Firth on sandy and muddy bottoms, the key fishing areas are in the upper Solway, east of a line drawn between Hestan Island on the Dumfries and Galloway coast and Allonby Bay in Cumbria. Shrimps are also a key part of the Solway food web, providing prey in the Firth.

Brown Shrimp fisheries are seasonal and form a small part of landings in the English Solway ranging significantly in landings value each year. In 2018 the value of brown shrimp landings in the English Solway was £106,000.

Shrimps can tolerate a wide temperature range, and therefore spawn either in summer or winter. They feed on anything edible, including worms, young fish, small crustaceans, plants and organic debris. The shrimps are found in high densities in narrow channels at low tide.

Insufficient data from sampling of landings means that analytical stock assessments have not been undertaken for the Solway Firth region. There is no MCRS for shrimp provided in the UK statutory guidance on MCRSs in UK waters, ‘however catches must be riddled to comply with minimum marketable sizes (total length: above 46 mm for females and above 48 mm for males)’ (North Western Inshore Fisheries Conservation Authority, n.d.). NWIFCA byelaws are available here, including the Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee inherited byelaw 14 on Shrimps and Prawns. More information on shrimp and fisheries management of shrimp in the NWIFCA district is available here.

Image; Shrimp. ©  N. Coombey/ Solway Firth Partnership.

Marine fish and shellfish

Cockles

Cerastoderma edule 

Cockles occur along the Solway coast in a variety of conditions; from soft mud to stony gravel but are most abundant on the intertidal flats of the large estuaries. They normally live just below the surface of the sand and feed by drawing water in through siphons, which filter out all the microscopic plants and animals. The major spawning period is the spring, although spawning may continue throughout the summer and autumn. The resulting spat tends to settle in areas of fine mud above the low to mid shoreline.

The harvesting of cockles was significant in the 1980’s and 1990’s, which affected the stock and associated intertidal biodiversity. Cockle fisheries in the Scottish Solway Firth were closed in 2011 under the Inshore Fishing (Prohibition of Fishing for Cockles) (Solway Firth) (Scotland) Order 2011, to allow recovery. This closure followed a five-year Solway Firth Regulating Order (2006-2011) managed by the Solway Shellfish Management Association (dissolved 2017). This closure was due to concerns over the sustainability of the species in the region, having been commercially harvested since 1987. There is a potential opportunity to reopen the cockle fishery. However, a 2014 study (The Solway Cockle Fishery Management Study) identified challenges due the inconsistent quality of the cockles and restricted demand (Marine Scotland Science, 2015b).

In 2015 a survey was conducted of Scottish Solway Firth Cockle grounds, to update stock information (Dickens et al, 2016). The survey looked at the following cockle grounds; Barnhourie, North Bank, Carsethorn, Auchencairn Bay, Orchardton Bay, Glenisle & Rough Island, Wigtown Bay, Fleet Bay and Arbigland. These were the grounds used by cockle fishers in the 1990’s, and helps to illustrate the thriving cockle fishing industry which once flourished in the Solway. In 2015 the overall cockle biomass estimate for all the grounds was 13,366t, less than the 14,242t estimated in the previous survey, conducted in 2013. However, the biomass density was slightly higher in 2015 than 2013. Most of the biomass resided in the larger grounds (North Bank and Barnhourie) and there was also evidence of stock increase at North Bank (Dickens et al, 2016).

Cockles are not only important from a socio-economic perspective in the Solway, but also play an important role in the ecosystem and food webs in the Firth. Conservation in the Solway includes a large Special Protection Area (SPA) which has been extended and now covers the majority of the Solway (see Protected Areas). Data presented in Dickens et al (2016) was passed to NatureScot in order to model shorebird feeding requirements in the inner Solway. This model included all sites apart from Fleet and Wigtown, and concluded that surplus stocks were insufficient to support commercial fishing for cockles in 2015/2016 (Dickens et al, 2016).

According to the North Western Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority (NWIFCA) the three cockle beds on the English Solway: Middle Bank Cockle Bed, Beckfoot Cockle Bed and Cardurnock Flats Cockle Bed, are currently closed under NWIFCA Byelaw 3 Paragraph 12 due to low stocks. There have been several calls to reopen the fishery but it remains closed at present. For more information on cockle fishing in the Solway see the Sea Fisheries section of the Solway Review, within the Productive chapter.

There was broad agreement amongst stakeholders that there is a potential opportunity to reopen the cockle fishery in the future, however, Middle Bank Cockle Bed was surveyed with an industry suction dredge in 2017 but there was not sufficient stock to permit harvesting. NWIFCA had plans in place to conduct a survey by hand in 2020 to gauge whether stocks have recovered enough to permit commercial harvesting.

Image; Cockle Shell. ©  N. Coombey/ Solway Firth Partnership.

Marine fish and shellfish

Mussels

Mytilus edulis

Mussels are the most common form of bivalve found in the Solway area and can be found in scattered areas along the Solway Firth but most notably at Beckfoot and Dubmill (see Intertidal rocks & sediments and Shallow and shelf subtidal sediments). Spawning usually takes place in late spring, when the “spat” floats in the plankton layer, before settling in new areas. Mussel fishing increased in the late 1980s but production varies from year to year, depending mainly upon the quality of the spatfall. The Silloth channel is known to have very high densities of blue mussels, with Axelsson et al (2006) recording 10,500 individuals per 0.1 m². According to a 1997 report from Scottish Natural Heritage (now NatureScot), the Solway was the location in Scotland most reported to feature ‘transient populations’ of mussels. Due to the mobile nature of sediments in the Solway there is the potential for blue mussel beds to establish in an area and then be displaced. Elsewhere beds tend to become established with locations remaining consistent over long periods (McKay & Fowler, 1997).

There is no commercial harvesting of mussels in the Scottish Solway. The English Solway mussel bed currently has a limited stock available and mussels can be landed if above the MCRS of 45mm at the longest part of the shell. Refer to the NWIFCA website for further information. Information on current mussel beds and restrictions are available here. Insufficient data from sampling of landings means that analytical stock assessments have not been undertaken for the Solway Firth region.

Image; Mussels. ©  N. Coombey/ Solway Firth Partnership.

Marine fish and shellfish

Native Oyster

Ostrea edulis

Native oysters are commercially exploited in Loch Ryan, by the Loch Ryan Oyster Fishery Company Ltd, at one of the UK’s largest native oyster beds (see Aquaculture). The oyster rights in Loch Ryan have been with the Wallace family since 1701. They are an important socio-economic resource for the local area although there are also opportunities to expand this. For example, oysters are provided for the annual Stranraer Oyster Festival (see Sport, Recreation and Tourism).

Native oysters in Loch Ryan are generally found in shallow waters, and fished by dredging from the seabed from hard bottomed areas on the east side of the Loch, near Lefnoll Point, also see the shallow and shelf subtidal sediments section of the Solway Review. Oysters are hand graded by the fishery, and the smaller ones are densely re-laid into marked beds for future harvest.

Image; Native Oysters © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant.

Marine fish and shellfish

Scallops

King, Pecten maxmimus and queen, Aequipecten opercularis scallops

Both king scallops and the smaller ‘queenies’ are abundant on the western side of the Solway in Luce Bay and off Burrow Head. The ground is much firmer than to the east, consisting of hard sand, gravel and maerl, which especially suit the queen scallops. King and queen scallops are a large part of the landings in the Solway Firth, most significantly at Kirkcudbright harbour. The mobility of scallops is limited and therefore they are susceptible to overfishing.

Isle of Man waters are known to be popular during the 8-month long scallop fishing season, providing higher catch rates than other waters. The Isle of Man specified ‘a Total Allowable Catch of 2049t of king scallops has been set for the season, which runs from 1 November 2020 to 31 May 2021, with a daily catch limit per vessel set at 700kg. This will be monitored and reviewed regularly following the latest market conditions’ (The Fishing Daily, 2020).

According to Dobby et al (2017), the Irish Sea scallop fishery ‘began in the 1970s and landings into Scotland steadily increased to a peak of 1,461 t in 2010 [although 1,522 t of scallops were landed in the Scottish Solway in 2010 according to a custom data request from Marine Scotland reported in Sea Fisheries]. Landings into Scotland have decreased since then, but those from the Irish Sea assessment area, have increased with the 2016 landings (5,480 t) being the highest in the time series. The majority are landed into ports outside Scotland with a large proportion taken by non-Scottish vessels. At various times of the year approximately 18 large (14-24 m in length) nomadic Scottish vessels fish the Irish Sea particularly in Luce Bay (seasonally), the scallop grounds off Burrow Head and around the Isle of Man. These vessels normally land at Kirkudbright, Stranraer or the Isle of Whithorn’.

Insufficient data from sampling of landings means that analytical stock assessments have not been undertaken for the Solway Firth region. A collaborative programme of work (UK and Isle of Man) to cover sampling and stock monitoring is required to improve the basis for assessment and advice in this area.

There are MCRS set for scallops of 100mm and queen scallops of 40mm. In most Scottish waters the minimum size for scallops is increased to 105mm as per The Regulation of Scallop Fishing (Scotland) Order 2017. However, in the Solway minimum catch size for scallops is slightly larger, 110mm, given that in the Irish Sea south of 55°N the minimum catch size for scallops is 110mm. Both the general 105mm measurement and the increased 110 mm measurement are provided for in Article 3 of The Regulation of Scallop Fishing (Scotland) Order 2017. Throughout the Solway the MCRS for King scallops is 110mm, and for Queen scallops is 40mm.

Currently, there is no catch limit on UK scallop fisheries; instead they are mostly managed by MCRS, restrictions on dredge numbers and seasonal closures in some areas. Fishing effort for crabs and scallops (king and queen) is also managed in ICES area VII, including the Solway, for vessels over 15 metres through the Western Waters Days and Sea scheme. According to the MMO the allocation of days from 1^st April until 30^th June 2021 for western water scallops is 55 days. More information is available here.

In Scotland, concerns over the health of the queen scallop stock have led to a re-assessment of these controls, with most consultees backing an increase in the minimum size and the introduction of a seasonal closure of the fishing grounds (Marine Scotland, 2017a). The seasonal closure was introduced in 2018, but as yet there has been no change in minimum catch size.

Image; Queen scallop. © Solway Firth Partnership

Marine fish and shellfish

Other species of note

Additional ICES advice;

• Blue ling (Molva dypterygia) in subareas 6–7 and Division 5.b (Celtic Seas and Faroes grounds)
• Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in divisions 4.b–c, 7.a, and 7.d–h (central and southern North Sea, Irish Sea, English Channel, Bristol Channel, and Celtic Sea)
• Spurdog (Squalus acanthias) in subareas 1–10, 12, and 14 (the Northeast Atlantic and adjacent waters)
• European eel (Anguilla anguilla) throughout its natural range
• Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea)
• Herring (Clupea harengus) in Division 7.a North of 52°30’N (Irish Sea)
• Hake (Merluccius merluccius) in subareas 4, 6, and 7, and in divisions 3.a, 8.a–b, and 8.d, Northern stock (Greater North Sea, Celtic Seas, and the northern Bay of Biscay)
• Horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) in Subarea 8 and divisions 2.a, 4.a, 5.b, 6.a, 7.a–c, and 7.e–k (the Northeast Atlantic)
• Ling (Molva molva) in subareas 6–9, 12, and 14, and in divisions 3.a and 4.a (Northeast Atlantic and Arctic Ocean)
• Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) in subareas 1–8 and 14, and in Division 9.a (the Northeast Atlantic and adjacent waters)
• White anglerfish (Lophius piscatorius) in Subarea 7 and in divisions 8.a–b and 8.d (southern Celtic Seas, Bay of Biscay)
• Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) in Division 7.a, Functional Unit 14 (Irish Sea, East)
• Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea)
• Sole (Solea solea) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea)
• Blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) in subareas 1–9, 12, and 14 (Northeast Atlantic and adjacent waters)
• Whiting (Merlangius merlangus) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea)

There is also a list of those stocks in the Celtic Seas ecoregion in 2020 that do not have a full set of reference points, provided in Annex A2 of ICES Fisheries Overview for the Celtic Seas ecoregion, available here.

Common periwinkles (Littorina littorea) are hand gathered in the Solway from the intertidal zone. Winkles reach maturity when the shell width reaches 10-12mm. Winkles are an omnivorous, grazing, intertidal gastropod. NWIFCA byelaws are available here, including the Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee inherited Byelaw 7 on the methods of fishing and minimum size of winkles (Littorina littorea). This byelaw only permits hand gathering winkles, and only those which will not pass through a 16mm squared gauge.

Whelks (Buccinum undatum) are carnivorous gastropod molluscs found throughout the Solway. Fishing effort has increased in recent years due to demand from a continental market. Landings data show that whelks are one of the most landed species across both the Scottish and English Solway in recent years with catch, overall, increasing. The height of the shell reaches 10cm and the width, 6cm. Whelks are found on sediment in the sublittoral zone, where they consume bivalves. The MCRS for whelks in UK waters is 45mm. There is an inherited Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee Byelaw (byelaw 26) meaning a permit is required to fish for lobster (Homarus gammarus), crab (Cancer pagurus), or whelk (Buccinum undatum) within the Cumbrian Solway. More information on NWIFCA whelk fisheries management is available here.

Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) are only found in the deeper waters to the north and west of the Firth, and even there only in small quantities. The area off Whitehaven to St Bees Head forms part of their nursery grounds. Haddock prefer a hard coarse sandy type of ground, where they feed on brittlestars, worms and molluscs. Haddock are recognised by the black lateral line and distinctive dark blotch above the pectoral fin and range in adult size generally between 38-69cm. The UK allocation for haddock in the Irish Sea (ICES division VIIa) in 2021 is 1,779t (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2021). The MCRS for haddock in UK waters is 30cm.

Pollack (Pollachius pollachius) is more widely distributed around the Solway than haddock, inhabiting rough rocky ground and wrecks, and is recognised as a good sporting fish. Pollack feed on small crustacea, smaller members of the cod family and sandeels and can grow up to 105cm.  The UK allocation for pollack in ICES area VII in 2021 is 1,871t (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2021). The MCRS for pollack in UK waters is 30cm.

There is no directed fishery for demersal lemon sole (Microstomus kitt), brill (Scophthalmus rhombus) and turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) but small amounts of all three species are regularly landed as a bycatch from trawlers working the grounds of the Firth. Lemon sole is a right-eyed flatfish, reaching 65cm and lives on rocky seabeds. Brill is a brown speckled, left-eyed flatfish, reaching 75cm and has a frilly appearance, as part of the dorsal fin is not connected to the fin membrane.  Brill and turbot are related and often confused as the two can interbreed. Turbot is a left-eyed disc-shaped flatfish that can grow up to 100cm and lives in sandy, shallow waters.

Both dab (Limanda limanda) and flounder (Platichthys flesus) are common throughout the Solway, with the flounder being particularly common in the upper Solway. Both are right-eyed flatfish similar in a brown speckled appearance. Adults range between 25-50cm and eat worms, molluscs, sandeels and crustaceans.

Herring (Clupea harnegus) are present throughout the Solway and also use the area as a nursery ground. Adult herring mature at age 3-4 and migrate vast distances to feed, spawn and overwinter. Herring grow up to 45cm and feed on copepods, krill and small fish. The MCRS for herring in UK waters is 20cm.

The thornback ray (Raja clavata) is very common and is regularly caught in most parts of the Solway. During the spring, mature females (>9 years), move into shallow water to lay their egg capsules. Thornback ray egg cases, known as ‘mermaid’s purse’, are often found washed up along the Solway coast. It is at this time when many of these large breeding fish are caught on the hard ground between Workington and Allonby Bay off the Cumbrian coast. Thornback rays are vulnerable to overfishing due to their slow growth rate, as stocks take a long time to replenish. Rays feed on small fish such as sprats, herring and sandeels, as well as brown shrimp and small crabs. Thornbacks can grow up to 100cm. Certain skates and rays, including the thornback ray, are grouped for quota allocation. The UK allocation for 2021 for skates and rays in ICES areas; 6a, 6b, 7a-c and 7e-k is 2,503t (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2021). There is also an inherited Cumbria Sea Fisheries Committee Byelaw (byelaw 9) relevant to the landing of skates and rays. Under this byelaw, unless the landing obligation requires otherwise, there is a minimum landing size of 45cm between the extreme tips of the wings, and a minimum wing size of 22cm. More information on NWIFCA fisheries management is available here.

A species of spurdog shark, the spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) are summer visitors to the Solway. They are particularly common on the grounds between Burrow Head and the Mull of Galloway. Spiny dogfish gather in large shoals following and feeding on schooling fish such as sandeels and herring. Spiny dogfish have two spines, which are used defensively. The shark arches its back to pierce its captor and has venomous glands at the base of its spine. Males mature at age 11 reaching 80-100cm, whilst females mature at age 18-21, reaching 98.5-159cm. For more information see the Shark Skates and Rays section. The UK allocation for 2021 for spurdog in ICES areas; 6, 7 and 8; United Kingdom and international waters of 5; international waters of 1, 12 and 14 is 115t (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2021). However, this is a bycatch allowance and spurdog are not to be targeted in these areas.

Grey mullet (Chelon labrosus), a common fish in estuaries, creeks and river inlets, moves in and out with the tides to feed. The grey mullet is particularly common in the summer months, and due to its increasing market value it has started to be fished commercially in recent years. Grey mullet feed by taking mouthfuls of mud off the seabed and digesting all the living and dead material in it.

Salmon (Salmo salar) and sea trout (Salmo trutta) are fished in the rivers which drain into the Solway such as the River Annan, Nith, Border Esk, and River Eden. These used to be thriving stocks which have seen significant decline in recent years, and seen diminishing catch. Salmon and trout controls are in force throughout Scotland, England and within the Solway Firth. Even for recreational fishing these species are protected by law and salmon and sea trout must be returned unless fishermen are licensed. Controls on salmon and trout fishing have a huge impact on the traditional form of fishing ‘Haaf netting’. For more information of Haaf net fishing see the Sea Fisheries section of the Solway Review. A 2018 report from the Environment Agency outlines the state of both salmon and sea trout stocks in the Border Esk and Eden rivers in the inner Solway, available here. The River Eden, upstream of the Solway, is also designated as a Special Area of Conservation, for which the presence of salmon (in addition to sea and river lamprey) was a primary feature for this designation. In Scotland’s Marine Assessment concluded that; ‘the number of Atlantic salmon returning to Scottish coastal waters has declined over the last 50 years. This is not associated with a reduction in salmon leaving rivers and would appear to be driven by increased at-sea mortality. Previously declines in coastal returns were compensated for by reductions in commercial net fisheries and by rod fisheries adopting catch and release. However, this buffering capacity has now been fully utilised and post 2011 this decline has had an impact on the estimated number of salmon spawning in Scottish rivers. A reduction in the size of returning salmon, and therefore egg production, has further exacerbated these declines… The best available evidence suggests the overall sea trout stock is at its lowest level since 1952. There is evidence of an overall decline over the past 20 years. Examination on a finer scale shows declines are spread throughout the country’ (Moffat et al, 2020).

Sandeel (Ammodytes spp.) is not a true eel but although large shoals can be seen close to the shore’s edge they are not fished commercially. Sandeels provide food for herring and mackerel and many sea birds.

Sprat (Sprattus sprattus) are present in high numbers throughout the Firth but are not fished commercially. Sprat reach 15cm in length and feed on fish larvae and plankton.

Allis shad (Alosa alosa) and twaite shad (Alosa fallax) migrate to freshwater to spawn, but are otherwise marine fish as adults, and are known to be present in the Solway. Hybrids between the two species are known to occur in the Solway. Both are protected with partial protection under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (as amended) which regulates how they can be killed or taken, and are included in Schedule 3 of the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 (as amended). It is illegal to fish for shad in Britain and they are both on the UK BAP Priority fish species list.

Image; Winkles. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant

Marine fish and shellfish

Uncommon species

More than 130 fish species have been recorded in the Solway Firth. This includes a number of uncommon species such as the swordfish, (Xiphias gladius), the sunfish (Mola mola), a number of tunnys and sharks and some seahorses. A list of 130 species recorded in the Solway as of 1993 is provided in Potts and Swaby (1993).

Warmer species can enter the Solway probably because its waters are the most northerly of the shallow warm waters of the Irish Sea, before the relatively deep and colder waters of the North Channel. Rocky species such as the conger eel (Conger conger) and many wrasses are also represented but pelagic and deep-water species are not well represented.

Image; Portpatrick © G. Reid/ Solway Firth Partnership.

Marine fish and shellfish

Priority and Pressures

Species of fish in the Solway appear on a variety of priority lists for protection and conservation. Fish and shellfish recorded in the Solway appear on lists including;

• Scottish Priority Marine Features (PMF) List available here.
• UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) List of UK BAP Priority Fish Species is available here, and Priority Marine Species is available here.
  Note; The UK Biodiversity Action Plan has now been succeeded by the ‘UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework‘, published in July 2012. Despite this, the UK BAP lists of priority species and habitats are invaluable for Scotland and England when drawing up their own biodiversity lists.
• Species of Principal importance (SPI) England. List available here.
• Species as Features of Conservation Interest (FOCI) (Marine Conservation Zone Features) England. List available here.
• Scottish Biodiversity List (SBL) Scotland. List available here.

Marine shellfish can also form priority habitats (such as blue mussel beds and native oysters) see Intertidal Rock sediments and biodiversity, Subtidal rock, or Shallow and shelf subtidal sediments for relevant habitats in these environments.

Fish face many anthropogenic pressures such as; coastal and marine development, low frequency noise, activities causing disturbance, material dredging, water quality, eutrophication, seabed damage, habitat loss, pollution, water quality, aggregate extraction, discharge. These are not the only pressures fish species face, however, with issues such as disease, invasive non-native species, and climate change also causing impacts to fish. As outlined in the 2020 ICES ecosystem overview for the Celtic Seas Region the five most important pressures in the Celtic Seas ecoregion are selective extraction of species, abrasion, smothering, substrate loss, and nutrient an organic enrichment (International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020a).

Dredge and trawl fishing are pressures not just on the target species but for any other species in the same area which may be caught as bycatch, or their habitat damaged through these activities.

Arguably the main pressure on fish is overfishing, not just for the target species. Fish stocks which are fished above the MSY will deplete as this is unsustainable. As already mentioned, the MSY is the amount of fish which can be removed from a fish stock indefinitely as the stock will replenish through recruitment. This is not only important for the fish stock being commercially exploited but for the wider marine environment reliant on food webs and the interconnectedness of all marine species. The overfishing of one stock will have ramifications on other marine species which rely on fish for prey.

Marine fish and shellfish can be very sensitive to changes in their environment and ecosystem. The degree of sensitivity is dependent on many aspects of the fish or shellfish such as their habitat (pelagic/demersal) and species. Sensitivity to food web dynamics are also an issue for fish, which form a vitally important part of marine food webs as both prey and predator. Changes in plankton abundance or distribution will impact fish species in the area. Fish are also sensitive to the temperature of their environment. This is very dependent on the species, for example cod are relatively adaptable and tolerant to temperature change. As the sea temperature rises due to global warming it is likely that the distribution and productivity of marine fish will change as a result. There may be changes in the distribution of species or their range, either directly due to their own temperature preferences or indirectly due to the changing distribution of prey. In turn this will impact and likely change the distributions for species which prey on fish.

Image; Crab © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant

Marine fish and shellfish

References

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020). Fisheries overview, including mixed-fisheries considerations Celtic Seas eco-region. Available here. (Accessed: 01.07.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Stock Assessment Database. Available here. (Accessed: 02.03.18).

Joint Nature Conservation Committee and Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (on behalf of the Four Countries’ Biodiversity Group). (2012). UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework. Available here. (Accessed: 07.07.18)

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2007). UK Biodiversity Action Plan Priority Marine Species. Available here. (Accessed: 07.03.18)

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2007). UK Biodiversity Action Plan Priority Fish. Available here. (Accessed: 07.03.18)

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2016). Priority Marine Features in Scotland’s seas. Available here. (Accessed: 07.03.18)

Marine Life Information Network (n.d.). Species listed as Features of Conservation Interest (FOCI). Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.20)

Marine Life Information Network (n.d.). Species listed as ‘species of principal importance’. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.20)

Marine Management Organisation. (n.d.). Marine Planning Evidence Base. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.18)

Marine Management Organisation (2020). UK sea fisheries statistics 2019. Available here. (Accessed: 06.03.21)

Marine Scotland Science (2013). Fish and Shellfish Stocks: 2013. Available here. (Accessed: 22.07.19)

Marine Scotland Science (2012). Fish and Shellfish Stocks: 2012. Available here. (Accessed: 22.07.19)

Marine Scotland (n.d.). Scotland’s National Marine Plan Interactive. Available here. (Accessed: 06.08.19)

Mills, F., Sheridan, S. and Brown S., (2017). Clyde Marine Region Assessment. Clyde Marine Planning Partnership. pp 231, Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.18)

NatureScot (2020). Priority Marine Features in Scotland’s Seas. Available here. (Accessed: 01.04.21)

NatureScot (2020). Scottish Biodiversity List. Available here. (Accessed: 04.05.21)

North Western Inshore Fisheries Conservation Authority (n.d.) Available here. (Accessed: 06.03.18)

Solway Firth Partnership (1996). The Solway Firth Review, Solway Firth Partnership, Dumfries. Available here. (Accessed: 23.07.19)

In-Text Reference;

Axelsson, M. , Dewey, S. , Tourell, A. and Karpouzli, E. (2006). Site condition monitoring – the sublittoral sandbanks of the Solway Firth. Scottish Natural Heritage (now NatureScot) Commissioned Report No. 155 (ROAME No. F02AA409). Available here. (Accessed: 21.03.21)

Barreto, E. & Bailey, N. (2015). Marine Scotland Science, Fish and Shellfish Stocks 2015 Edition. Available here. (Accessed: 12.05.21)

Baxter, J.M., Boyd, I.L., Cox, M., Donald, A.E., Malcolm, S.J., Miles, H., Miller, B., Moffat, C.F., (Editors), (2011). Scotland’s Marine Atlas: Information for the national marine plan. Marine Scotland, Edinburgh. pp 191. Available here. (Accessed: 22.07.19)

BBC News (2021). Parkinson, J. UK and Norway fail to reach fishing deal. Available here. (Accessed: 20.06.21)

BBC News (2015). Council terminates lease for stake nets near Annan. Available here. (Accessed: 08.09.20)

Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (1998.) Fisheries spawning and nursery areas ‘Fishery Sensitivity Maps in British Waters’ GIS Layers for 1998, Coull, K.A., Johnstone, R., and S.I. Rogers. Available here. (Accessed: 12.06.21)

Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (2021). Secretary of State determination of fishing opportunities for British fishing boats, Presented to Parliament pursuant to section 24(2) of the Fisheries Act 2020, April 2021. Available here. (Accessed: 12.06.21)

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2019). Solway Firth MCZ: Factsheet. Available here. (Accessed: 12.05.21)

Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (2010). MB5301 Mapping spawning and nursery areas of species to be considered in Marine Protected Areas (Marine Conservation Zones). Report No 1: Final Report on development of derived data layers for 40 mobile species considered to be of conservation importance, Final Version August 2010. Available here (direct download) (Accessed: 22.06.21)

Dickens, S., McLay, A., Dobby, H., Goudge, H., & Deamer-John, A. (2016). Survey of the Scottish Solway Firth Cockle Grounds 2015. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science Vol 7 No 25. Available here (Accessed: 22.06.21)

Dobby, H., Fryer, R., Gibson, T., Skinear, S., Turriff, J., McLay, A. (2017). Scottish Scallop Stocks: Results of 2016 Stock Assessments. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science Vol 8 No 21 Available here. (Accessed: 22.06.21)

Government Press Release (2021). Office of the Secretary of State for Scotland, Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, David Duguid MP, and The Rt Hon George Eustice MP. UK and EU agreement on catch levels for 2021. Available here. (Accessed: 30.06.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2021). Whiting (Merlangius merlangus) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea). Available here. (Accessed: 01.07.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020a). Celtic Seas Ecoregion – Ecosystem overview. Available here. (Accessed: 12.06.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020b). Cod (Gadus morhua) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea). In Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2020. ICES Advice 2020, cod.27.7a Available here (Accessed: 22.06.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020c). Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) in subareas 1–8 and 14, and Division 9.a (the Northeast Atlantic and adjacent waters). In Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2020. ICES Advice 2020, mac.27.nea. Available here. (Accessed: 22.06.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020d). Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) in Division 7.a, Functional Unit 14 (Irish Sea, East). In Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2020. ICES Advice 2020, nep.fu.14. Available here. (Accessed: 22.06.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020e). Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea). In Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2020. ICES Advice 2020, ple.27.7a. Available here. (Accessed: 22.06.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2020f). Sole (Solea solea) in Division 7.a (Irish Sea). In Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2020. ICES Advice 2020, sol.27.7a. Available here.  (Accessed: 22.06.21)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (2015). Report of the Inter-Benchmark Protocol of Nephrops in FU 17 and 14 (IBPNeph), from June to September 2015, by correspondence. ICES CM 2015/ACOM:38. 86 pp. Available here. (Accessed: 21.06.21)

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Image; Landed Scallops in Kirkcudbright © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Colin Tennant