Birds

This section of the Solway Review looks at both seabirds and waterbirds. Some sections cover both seabirds and waterbirds while others are focussed on one or the other. The page title will indicate if the focus is specifically on seabirds or waterbirds.

The Solway is an important place for both waterbirds and seabirds, and is used by migratory and wintering populations. Certain areas of the Solway are afforded protection (Ramsar, Special Protected Area (SPA), Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)), to conserve bird species and other features, alongside non-statutory designations such as Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, or Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust reserves. For more information on the variety of designations, international, national, and non-statutory, please see the Protected Areas section.

Seabirds

Seabirds forage at sea but breed on land. They either feed on the water’s surface, or dive/swim for prey.

More than 100 bird species regularly use the marine areas in the UK. The majority of these species are waterbirds (see below) and seabirds. Seabird species include petrels, gannets, cormorants, skua, gulls, terns and auks. The Solway is an important place for both waterbirds and seabirds.

Waterbirds

Waterbirds refers collectively to birds which live on or around water. The term can encompass birds living on or around marine environments, those in freshwater areas, and those which move between the two. They often migrate over long distances and in large numbers, making them easy to spot while doing so.

The majority of UK bird species are waterbirds such as waders, herons, egrets, ducks, geese, swans, divers and grebes, and seabirds (see above).

Image; Bird watchers near Annan. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

Birds

Birds in the Solway

The Solway estuaries support high populations of overwintering birds, particularly, the red-throated diver (Gavia stellata), great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus), Slavonian grebe (Podiceps auratus), cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), eider (Somateria mollisima), common scoter (Melanitta nigra), scaup (Aythya marila) and the red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator). Luce Bay, Wigtown Bay, Kirkcudbright Bay, Auchencairn/Orchardton Bays and Rough Firth also provide important estuarine habitat for birds and need to be considered as an integral part of the Solway Firth. Wigtown Bay is of importance in its own right for wintering whooper swans (Cygnus Cygnus) and pink-footed geese (Anser brachyrhynchus).

Waterbirds recorded in the survey area for Robin Rigg Wind Farm’s Marine Ecology Monitoring Plan (Canning, et al, 2013) include scaup (Aythia marila), common scoter (Melianitta nigra), red-throated diver (Gavia stellata), black-throated diver (Gavia arctica), great northern diver (Gavia immer). Seabirds recorded in this survey area include; Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus), northern gannet (Morus bassanus), great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), blacklegged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), herring gull (Larus argentatus), great black-backed gull (Larus marinus), guillemot (Uria aalge), razorbill (Alca torda).

The UK’s estuaries are vitally important international staging posts and winter quarters for an enormous number of ducks, geese and wading birds. Each individual estuary has its own special attraction for wildlife but together they form links in a huge international chain along which millions of birds pass each spring and autumn. With the third largest continuous area of intertidal habit in the UK, covering some 220 sq. km, the inner Solway is a vital resting and wintering area for birds migrating along the eastern Atlantic seaboard. Being on the west coast, the Solway can increase in importance for birds during periods of severe cold weather to the east in Britain or Europe.

The Solway’s value is increased further as a consequence of the milder conditions generally experienced on the Solway compared with the east coast of Britain or on the estuaries and coasts of mainland Europe. This results in the estuary’s productivity declining less in winter. Many macrofaunal species burrow deeper into the sediment, or move to deeper water, to avoid extreme cold and may be less accessible to feeding birds; milder conditions on the Solway reduce this effect. Grune Point provides an important focal point for migrating land-birds and for unusual vagrants. This shingle spit is some 2 km long. The mobile shingle fringe quickly gives way to low marram dunes and open grassland, within which hawthorn and gorse have established and which find favour with passage and breeding birds.

Bird watching is a popular recreational activity in the UK, and is very popular around the Solway Firth, contributing to the many draws to visit the area. Designated areas offer a specific attraction for birdwatchers. However, bird watching can occur in locations outside designated and managed areas and is a free activity. Therefore the contribution this activity specifically makes to the Sport, Recreation, and Tourism sector is unknown. The Solway has bird watching and walking guides and books available to help all levels of bird watcher find appropriate sites including the Solway Firth Partnership ‘A special Place for Birds’ Guide, Loch Ryan for bird watching guide, Birdwatching in the Solway Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and a free guide from the Scottish Ornithologists Club. There is also excellent advice available from the Cumbria Bird Club. Information on different birding watching sites, and the species which have been recently spotted can be found on Bird Guides website in Dumfries and Galloway here, and Cumbria here. The British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) have a huge variety of ‘Bird Atlas’ breeding distribution maps available here, which are a helpful visual tool readers may find interesting and informing.

Protected Areas

The Solway is of great value to both seabird and waterbird species, and several designated sites, conservation areas, and recreational activities centre around the species which can be found around the Firth. The importance of birds to the Solway is highlighted by the Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and other sites which can be found in the Firth. Much of the information in the remainder of this page is also available in the Protected Areas section of the Solway Review.

SPAs in the Solway are; Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren SPA (Scotland) and Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA – As of late 2020 this site is now extended and renamed as Solway Firth SPA (Scotland/England).

SPAs are sites selected to protect certain species and migratory birds under the EU Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) which places member states under a duty to do so. The Bird Directive was originally adopted in 1979, and was amended in 2009, creating Directive 2009/147/EC. SPA sites are classified under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 (as amended) and the The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010 (as amended) in England and Scotland, and under the Conservation of Offshore Marine Habitats and Species Regulations 2017 (as amended) in the UK offshore area.
In Scotland SPAs are classified by Scottish Ministers on advice from NatureScot. In England’s inshore waters classification is undertaken by Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA’s) Secretary of State, with Natural England recommending SPAs within inshore waters for DEFRA’s consideration. The Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) is responsible for identifying potential sites offshore, to be classified. Both NatureScot and Natural England take scientific advice from the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) in determining the sites they will recommend. The Solway SPAs are designated for a range of breeding and non-breeding seabird and waterfowl assemblages.

Ramsar Sites

Ramsar sites are designated under the Ramsar Wetlands Convention and are of international importance designated by the UK government.

Solway Ramsar Sites;

Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren Ramsar Site (Scotland)
More information on this Ramsar site is available in the Protected Areas section, the specific page is available here.
Upper Solway Flats and Marshes Ramsar Site (Scotland/England)
More information on this Ramsar site is available in the Protected Areas section, the specific page is available here.

Solway Firth SPA;

The Solway Firth SPA is a cross border SPA, including the previously designated Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA site (designated in 1992) and the SPA at Rockcliffe Marsh (designated 1986).

The SPA supports a wide variety of bird species highlighted in the table below, along with virtually all the Svalbard population of Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) over the winter. This site is managed by NatureScot and Natural England.

Mudflats, sandflats and salt marshes are all common habitats within the Solway Firth SPA, all of which provide different habitats and prey to support both seabirds and waterbirds. This internationally important area has been recognised as such, and the whole estuarine complex is of importance for waders and wintering wildfowl (ducks, geese, and swans), and links the west coast estuaries, providing a chain used by migrating waterbirds.

It was announced in December 2020 that the proposed SPA (pSPA) was officially designated. First proposed in 2016 the new Solway Firth SPA includes the previously named Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA and a significantly larger area of the Solway Firth than the original SPA. Over 125,000 seabirds will benefit from this extension according to the UK Government Press Release announcing the extension. Marine Scotland also announced the extension on the same day among other SPA designations and 4 new MPAs. This site supports Annex 1 species of European Importance, and other migratory populations of European importance. A map of the extended proposed SPA area can be seen here. The map shows that the extension covers most of the English side of the Solway Firth, with the new SPA extending down to Whitehaven. The size of the SPA was more than doubled with this extension, from 436.7826km² to 1357.49km². There are five Annex I species (Directive 2009/147/EC) of European importance, non-breeding, which are regularly supported by the Solway Firth SPA; red-throated diver, whooper swans, Svalbard barnacle geese, golden plover, and bar-tailed godwit (see table below).

After the extension a new page was created within NatureScot’s SiteLink webpage, all of the features are listed as having ‘no negative pressures’ and as ‘condition not assessed’ as of February 2021.

Features *Qualifiers of the waterbird assemblage	Latest assessed condition	Pressure(s) listed by NatureScot	Summary condition	Estimated average Peak Numbers (unless otherwise stated averages for individuals taken across the 5 years between 1986/87 – 1990/91)	Solway Information See the High-Tide Waterbird Roost Mapping on the Cumbrian Solway coast for relatively recent information on high-tide roosts in the inner Cumbrian Solway (Solway Firth Partnership, 2016).
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), non-breeding	Unfavourable, no change (09.03.16)	Water quality	Unfavourable	4,800 (8% of British population)	Bar-tailed godwits are large, tall wading bird with a long beak. They have grey/brown plumage with a barred tail and white wedge on the rump and up onto the back. These wader birds breed in the far north of Scandinavia and Siberia but come to spend the winter on the Solway. Peak numbers occur in the winter. They feed on larger molluscs and polychaete worms of sandy foreshores with lugworm their main food. Major feeding areas occur around Southerness, off Powfoot, Campfield and in Moricambe Bay. Birds return north in late winter but concentrations of passage birds can occur through until May.
*Black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus), non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	13,732 Years; 2003/04 – 2005/06 (0.6% of British population)	Scottish black-headed Gulls can be seen all year, however numbers are greatest in the winter months with immigrants from Europe joining the UK’s resident population. They nest in wetlands inland as well as on the coast.
Common Gull (Larus canus),* non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	12,486 Years; 2003/04 – 2005/06 (1.8% of British population)	The common gull looks similar to the herring gull, but smaller, and can be found on the UK coast and wetlands. They use the Inner Solway for roosting and intertidal day foraging occur in the inner Solway. The Solway hosts one of the largest concentrations of common gull in Scotland (second to the Firth of Forth).
Common scoter (Melianitta nigra)*, non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	1,588 Years; 2001/02 – 2005/06 (1.6% of British population)	A large black feathered sea-duck, the common scoter dive for food, feeding on molluscs and small crustaceans. A large population of non-breeding common scoter is supported by the Solway. According to NatureScot; ‘for common scoter and goosander … the Solway Firth supports the largest concentrations in the north and/or west of their GB wintering ranges’ (NatureScot, 2016).
*Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (16.06.07)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	581 Years; 2007/08 – 2011/2012 (1.6% of British population)	Cormorants are large, black, long necked water birds with hooked beaks often seen around the coast on favourite roosting spots. They hold their wings out to dry in a distinctive pose, as their feathers are not waterproof. This feature, which seems a disadvantage, allows them to dive to greater depths to catch fish. Largest numbers occur in September, declining to their lowest in March. Most are found on the north side of the estuary. High-tide roost are found at Rockcliffe Marsh, but birds also roost at low water on sandbanks near their main feeding areas (Moricambe Bay and in the river channels of the Eden, Esk, Annan and Nith).
Curlew (Numenius arquata), non-breeding	Unfavourable, no change (28.01.16)	No negative pressures listed	Unfavourable	6,700 (7% of British population)	The curlew is the biggest UK wading bird and is easily identified by its long, down- curved bill, mottled brown plumage and long, bluish legs. The Solway Coast is one of the top sites in the country to see curlew as they are found in flocks of several thousands in the winter months especially January / February time. Small numbers of curlew breed on the merse/ saltmarsh at Kirkconnel and elsewhere but in August and September there is an influx of birds from further north and numbers remain fairly stable throughout the winter until the northerly migration begins in March/April. Curlew feed on invertebrates on both the foreshore and inland, the latter especially at high tide. Important feeding areas occur throughout the inner Solway with high tide roosts occurring throughout the inner Cumbrian Solway. The original Solway Review in particular noted Burgh Marsh, Newton, Calvo, Skinburness and Caerlaverock for high- tide roosts. See the High-Tide Waterbird Roost Mapping on the Cumbrian Solway coast for more recent information.
Dunlin (Calidris alpine)*, non-breeding	Favourable, declining (08.03.16)	Presence/ changing extent of invasive species	Favourable	11,900 (3% of British population)	The dunlin, a small wader, forms large flocks on the Solway coast in winter, often mixed with ringed plover. They fly here from their breeding grounds in the uplands of Scotland and northern England. The small dull grey brown bird looks similar to the sanderling in winter plumage with a grey back and white belly but it can be identified by its bill which is slightly longer and curves downwards. They prefer the mud of the Solway to the sandy beaches. Dunlin are a common wader on the Solway, with peak numbers occurring between December and February. They have a high degree of movement around the Solway. As dunlin are concentrated onto only a few major estuaries in spring, it makes the Solway particularly important at this time. The most important north shore feeding areas are Priestside Bank to Annan Waterfoot.
Golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria), non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (18.03.07)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	3,380 (2% of British population)	Adult golden plovers have a summer plumage of black front surrounded by a band of white with a spotted-gold and black back and cap. In winter, the adults lose the black and have a yellow front. Golden plover spend the summer in the uplands but form large flocks in winter on the coast, often in the company of lapwings. Birds return to the Solway from their upland breeding passage in September, having left in April. The most important feeding areas include Caerlaverock and Rockcliffe Marsh.
*Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), non-breeding	Unfavourable, declining (18.03.07)	Water quality	Unfavourable	300 (2% of British population)	Numbers reach a sharp peak in February, with numbers increasing from September onwards. Goldeneye are well distributed within the inner Solway. Their principal feeding areas are in the main river-channel between Dornock and Bowness, in the channels of the Esk, Eden, Nith and Annan, and on the scars at Newbie and the mouth of Moricambe Bay.
Goosander (Mergus merganser),* non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	146 Years; 2007/08 – 2011/2012 (1.6% of British population)	The goosander is a diving duck which feeds on fish in rivers and along the coast. It is a member of the sawbill family, so named as they have long, narrow bills with saw-like teeth for catching fish. The males have a green head, black and white body and red beak with a hooked tip while the females have a red head with a more grey body but similar beak.
Grey plover (Pluvialis squaterola),* non-breeding	Favourable, declining (18.02.16)	No proactive management	Favourable	720 (3% of British population)	The grey plover is a winter visitor to the Solway, arriving in late summer / autumn from their breeding ground in the Arctic tundra. The pigeon sized bird has a browny/grey plumage with a white rump and black armpits under the wings which become obvious in flight. They are prone to disturbance and are usually the first shore birds to take flight. Grey plover numbers remain far greater in the Solway than have been recorded in the past, with only 50 recorded in 1972. Numbers are low during May to August with a sizeable autumn passage from September to November. Numbers then decrease to a slightly lower winter level. Principal roosts are at Gillfooot Bay and Priestside on the north and Herdhill Scar to Cardurnock on the south shore. They feed very predictably in five main areas: Mersehead Sands/Gillfooot Bay; Carsethorn scars; Priestside; Newbie scars; and on the outer flats from Bowness-on-Solway to Grune Point.
Herring gull (Larus argentatus),* non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	3,034 Years; 2003/04 – 2005/06 (0.4% of British population)	This noisy, white gull with black-tipped grey wings and a yellow beak is a common and well known gull around the UK coast. They use the inner Solway for roosting and intertidal day foraging.
Knot (Calidris canutus), non-breeding	Favourable, declining (11.08.15)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	15,300 (7% of British population)	Knot are waders which migrate over huge distances, arriving on the Solway from their breeding grounds in Greenland and Canada in late autumn with peak numbers usually occurring in January/February. Knot are a chunky, short wading bird with silvery-grey plumage on top and white underneath (red in summer) with short grey/green legs. Knot spend the winter on the Solway where they form large wheeling flocks of many thousands. They are specialist feeders on various species of bivalve mollusc. Important feeding areas occur at Blackshaw, Campfield, Powfoot, Priestside and Gillfoot Bay while some high-tide roosts occur at Campfield and Gillfoot.
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus),* non-breeding	Favourable, declining (09.03.16)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	5,037 Years; 2007/08 – 2011/12 (0.8% of British population)	Lapwings are nocturnal, preferring to hunt during the night to avoid black- headed gulls which often steal their food. Lapwing have black and white plumage with shiny green on the upper part of the body and a black crest on top of the head. They are easily recognised by their ‘peewit’ call and their round winged, wheeling flight pattern. They are resident around the Solway and so can be seen all year round.
Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), non-breeding	Favourable, declining (08.03.16)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	33,850 (12% of British population)	The oystercatcher is a large, stocky, black and white wading bird with a long, orange- red bill and reddish-pink legs. Its bright colours make it an easy bird to identify. Oystercatchers breed on all the saltmarshes and merses and on almost all the shingle shores. Generally they are widespread and numerous in inner Solway throughout the year but in August their numbers are swelled by migrating birds. Following this peak passage the numbers reduce and stabilise through much of the winter until April/May when birds return north. There are not many oysters on the Solway anymore so they feed mainly on mussels and cockles using their long bill to break into the shells. Important feeding areas include Blackshaw Bank, Mersehead, Carsethorn, Powfoot and Cardurnock. Important high-tide roosts also occur at these locations although the relative importance of these, as well as the feeding areas, varies seasonally.
Pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus), non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (18.03.07)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	14,900 (14% of (Icelandic) British wintering population)	This medium sized goose has a pink bill and pink feet and legs. The body is greyish with a darker head and neck. Pink-footed geese breed in Iceland and Greenland and fly to the Solway to spend the winter in the milder climate. They use the inner Solway as resting/ overwintering areas. There are variations on the numbers of Pink-footed goose due to weather and other conditions, see table in the Wetland Bird Survey page below to view these fluctuations, here. The Solway is important principally for roosting. The original Solway Review highlighted Blackshaw Bank, Cardurnock Flats, the Esk/Eden confluence, Moricambe Bay, Priestside and Mersehead as important roosting areas.
Pintail (Anas acuta), non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (31.03.15)	Game/ fisheries management	Favourable	1,400 (0.6% of British population)	Pintail are dabbling ducks which come to the Solway from Western Siberia, Scandinavia and Iceland. They can feed in stubble and other fields inland but the bulk of their time is spent on the merse and inshore where they feed on various plants and invertebrates. Pintail are found largely inshore around Caerlaverock and Carse Bay, irrespective of the state of the tide. They return to their breeding grounds in April.
Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata), non-breeding	None provided	No Negative Pressures listed	None provided	521 Years; 2001/02 – 2005/06 (3.1% of British population)	Unsurprisingly, the red-throated diver has a red throat amongst its grey/ brown plumage. They are migratory and ‘move to coastal areas in winter from their breeding sites and feed on a wide variety of fish, which they catch by diving from the surface and pursuing their prey underwater. The fish species taken will be influenced by what is locally most readily available’ (NatureScot, 2016).
Redshank (Tringa tetanus), non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (10.08.15)	Presence/ changing extent of INNS	Favourable	2,100 (3% of British population)	The redshank is a resident breeder and winter visitor to the Solway. It is a medium sized wader with distinctive red-orange legs, a medium-length bill with an orange base, brown speckled back and wings and paler belly. They are nervous birds and so are often the first to panic and give noisy alarm calls to other nearby waders. Redshank breed in important numbers at Rockcliffe Marsh with lesser numbers occurring on the merse/saltmarsh of Kirkconnel, Caerlaverock, Burgh, Newton and Skinburness. Redshank feed on small invertebrates of the upper shore and are found principally off Powfoot and between Carsethorn and Aird’s Point. Estimation of peak numbers at main roosts on the Cumbrian coast are greatest around Glasson to Herdhill Scar, Grune Point and Maryport.
Ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), non-breeding, passage	Favourable, maintained (02.03.17)	Recreation, disturbance	Favourable	981 Years; 2007/08 – 2011/2012 (1.3% of the biogeographic population)	Ringed plover is a small, dumpy wading bird with a brown cap, white forehead, a black mask around the eyes, orange legs and a short orange and black bill. It can be seen all year round on the Solway feeding on insects and crustaceans which it lures to the surface of the beach by tapping its feet on the ground to mimic raindrops. The highest counts occur during spring and autumn passage, but there is high population turnover (especially in spring) likely meaning counts are underestimations.
Sanderling (Calibris alba),* non-breeding	Favourable, recovered. (16.06.07)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	260 (2% of British population)	A small, plump wading bird with grey back and white belly, black legs and a short black bill. They are characteristically light silvery grey in winter which helps distinguish from the similar dunlin. This bird doesn’t breed in the Solway but fly from the Arctic breeding grounds to spend the winter here. They can be found on the long sandy beaches of the Solway, running up and down the shore with each passing wave, feeding on small marine worms, crustaceans and molluscs. Virtually all the wintering sanderling in the Solway are found in the outer Solway. In spring large numbers are found in the Mawbray/ Beckfoot and Annan/ Waterfoot areas and sometimes on the Rockcliffe Marshes.
Scaup (Aythya marila), non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (31.03.15)	Water quality	Favourable	2,300 (57% of British population)	The inner Solway is one of the most important areas in the UK for scaup, a diving duck. They arrive in the winter and food consists mainly of marine molluscs, crustaceans, larvae and eggs. They return to their breeding grounds in April.
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna),* non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (31.03.15)	Presence/ changing extent of INNS, water quality	Favourable	1,600 (2% of British population)	The shelduck is one of the largest ducks in the UK, growing as big as a small goose. It has a distinctive dark green head and neck, a red bill and a mostly white body with chestnut and black markings. They can be spotted all year round along the Solway feeding on invertebrates in the mud and sand but numbers rise significantly in winter. Numbers reach their highest levels around February, sometimes in March or April. Wintering shelduck are widely distributed within the inner Solway with the majority on the southern shore. The main concentration is in Moricambe Bay. On the Scottish side, birds are concentrated at Caerlaverock and Carse Bay.
Shoveler (Anus clypeata),* non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	120 (1% of British population)	Peak numbers for the whole Firth usually occur in October. Shoveler is common around Caerlaverock, Annan and Priestside.
Svalbard barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis), non-breeding	Favourable, maintained (18.03.07)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	12,300 (100% of (Svalbard) British wintering population)	The black and white barnacle geese found on the Solway Firth are almost the entire population of geese from an island group in the Arctic called Svalbard. These geese fly thousands of miles every autumn to spend the winter on the saltmarshes of the Solway, the main areas being Caerlaverock and Mersehead on the Scottish side and Rockcliffe Marsh and Newton Marsh on the Cumbrian coast.
Teal (Anus crecca),* non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	1,400 (1% of British population)	Maximum numbers are present in the Solway in September, declining through to March. They are most common inland around Caerlaverock and Rockcliffe Marsh.
*Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), non-breeding	None provided	No negative pressures listed	None provided	600 (1% of British population)	The turnstone is a medium sized wading bird with brown / black upperparts and a brown and white or black and white head pattern. They can be seen along the UK coast in small numbers on shingle or rocky shores for most of the year but don’t breed here and are more commonly seen in winter picking over rocks looking for food. Numbers increase steadily during autumn, then decline in the later part of winter. Most of the turnstones occur on the open coast to the south of Grune Point. On the north side, they are most common around Southerness, Carsethorn and Newbie.
Waterfowl assemblage, non breeding	Favourable, maintained (30.06.07)	Game/ fisheries management, presence/ changing extent of INNS, water quality	Favourable	–	–
Whooper swan (Cygnus Cygnus), non-breeding	Favourable, recovered (18.03.07)	No negative pressures listed	Favourable	250 (4% of British non-breeding population)	The whooper swan is a large white swan which can be identified by the distinctive yellow patches on its bill. The local mute swan is bigger with an orange bill. Most whooper swans in the Solway fly in from Iceland, usually arriving in early-mid October. They feed on vegetation on the merse/ saltmarsh and farmland and roost on the estuary, freshwater lochs/ponds or inshore. The principal areas for whoopers are Caerlaverock and Moricambe Bay. They depart for their breeding grounds in April/May.

Table Data Sources; Scotland’s Environment Website (n.d.b), SiteLink (n.d.b) & NatureScot (2020b).

The SPA supports virtually all the Svalbard population of barnacle goose, (Branta leucopsis) over the winter. The part of the Solway Firth SPA which was previously the ‘Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA’ in the inner Solway is also designated as a Ramsar Site; as it is a wetland site of international importance, especially for waterbirds (Upper Solway Flats and Marshes Ramsar Site). The site regularly supports over 130,000 wintering waterfowl, including those listed above. The site includes the subsumed SPA of Rockcliffe Marsh, which was subject to separate classification.

The SSSI status arises from the flats and marshes of the Upper Solway Firth intertidal habitat. Not only is this site vitally important for wintering wildfowl and wading birds, as discussed above, but it is also important for breeding birds, natterjack toads, invertebrates and geomorphology and vegetation of the salt mashes (known as ‘merse’ in Scotland), rare plant species and geological exposures.

Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren SPA;

Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren is entirely located in Scotland, on the Galloway coast. The same area is also designated as a Ramsar Site as it is a wetland site of international importance, especially for waterbirds under the Ramsar Convention, an intergovernmental treaty seeking the conservation and wise use of wetlands (Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren Ramsar Site).

It comprises two separate areas: a large eutrophic freshwater loch (Loch of Inch) and an area of foreshore and sand dunes (Torrs Warren). Both areas regularly supporting, in winter, an internationally important number of Greenland white-fronted goose, (Anser albifrons flavirostris) and a nationally important number of hen harriers, (Circus cyaneus). This site is managed by NatureScot.

Features

Latest
assessed
condition

Pressure(s)
listed by
NatureScot

Summary condition

Estimated average Peak Numbers (individuals, winter peak mean in years between 1991/92 – 1995/96)

Solway Information

See the High-Tide Waterbird Roost Mapping on the Cumbrian Solway coast for relatively recent information on high-tide roosts in the inner Cumbrian Solway.

Greenland
white-fronted
goose
(Anser albifrons
flavirostris)

Favourable,
maintained
(25.10.19)

Recreation/
disturbance

Favourable

534 (4% of British population, 2% of World population)

Greenland white-fronted geese winter exclusively in Ireland and Britain but breed in Greenland. They are distinctive for the white feather bordering around their orange bill.

Hen harrier
(Circus cyaneus),
non-breeding

Favourable,
maintained
(31.03.16)

No negative
pressures
listed

Favourable

8 (1% of British wintering population)

This bird of prey overwinter around the coast. A small, yet nationally important number are supported by the Solway Firth Loch Torrs and Warren SPA.

Table Data Source; Scotland’s Environment Website (n.d.a). & Sitelink (n.d.a), NatureScot (1999)

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) sites are also found on both sides of the Firth. The RSPB is a voluntary organisation and RSPB sites are not statutorily designated. Sites are generally owned or leased long-term by the RSPB and open to the public or may be owned by others but managed by RSPB. The RSBP is a nature conservation charity which works towards conservation and sustainability objectives with a focus on bird species research and species conservation.

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Sites (RSPB) on the Solway coast

Jurisdiction	Name	Area	Date Purchased/rented
England	Campfield Marsh	3.35km²	1987 – site purchased
England	St Bees Head	–	–
Scotland	Mull of Galloway (Including Scare Rocks)	–	2013 – site purchased through community buyout. Mull of Galloway Trust owns and operates the RSPB visitor Centre
	Crook of Baldoon	1.96km²	2010 – site purchased
	Mersehead	0.5 – 1km²	–
	Kirkconnell Merse	–	–

Wildfowl and Wetland Trust (WWT) – Caerlaverock

WWT is a charitable organisation which protects areas of high wildlife value which they own or lease long term. They have a total of 10 sites throughout the UK. WWT Caerlaverock is a 5.87km² site which opened in 1970 on the Scottish side of the Solway. The coastal wetlands at WWT have observatories and hides where visitors can see the variety of birds in the reserve, including barnacle geese, whooper swans & ospreys. The site hosts a wide range of educational and art events, see the ‘What’s on’ page here.

Solway Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty

The Solway Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) located on the southern, Cumbrian, shore of the inner Solway is also known to be a popular area for bird species. With the AONB area covering most of the English Solway Firth coastline from Rockcliffe Marsh to Maryport, there are thousands of migratory waders and wildfowl that over-winter in the Solway Coast AONB. The same range of waterbirds found on the Scottish side of the inner Solway can also be found on the English side within the Solway Coast AONB. The vast array of bird species found in the inner Solway includes; Pintails, whooper swans, and teal, and also features wading birds such as turnstone and dunlin.

St Bees Head Site of Special Scientific interest (SSSI)

St Bees Head Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) is the most westerly point on the Cumbrian coast, approximately 1km south-west of Whitehaven. The SSSI comprises an 8km stretch of coast between St Bees and Whitehaven and encompasses the sheer cliff face, an area of cliff-top grassland and the shore down to the mean low-water mark. The biological interest of the site is represented in a number of different ‘habitats’: natural cliff-top grassland and heath, sheer cliff face and cliff-fall rubble, shingle and wave-cut platform. There also is an RSPB managed area of the St Bees cliffs hosting north-west England’s largest seabird colony.

The birds specifically included and monitored as features of the SSSI designation are;

Black guillemot (Cepphus grille)
Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)
Guillemot (Uria aalge)
Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)
Puffin (Fratercula arctica)
Razorbill (Alca torda)
Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis)

Essential areas for seabirds cannot be protected through the SSSI designation which stop at mean low water springs. The marine area adjacent to the St Bees Head cliffs, however, is a designated Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ). This is an inshore site that is partially within the English Solway but extends beyond the Solway Firth, stretching from south of Whitehaven, around the cliffs at St Bees Head, to the mouth of the Ravenglass Estuary. The surrounding area is particularly important for seabirds with an estimated 10,000 breeding seabirds thought to be present. The MCZ partially overlaps with a SSSI, which protects seabird nesting areas. The area was extended in May 2019 following concern that it did not do enough to protect the foraging grounds of seabirds and the additional bird feature of razorbill (Alca torda) was also added. The extended MCZ boundaries only apply to razorbill, with all other features still applying to the original 2013 boundaries.

The outstanding interests of this area are the sheer cliffs, which provide the only breeding site on the coast of Cumbria for a variety of colonial seabirds. These include over 2,000 pairs of guillemots along with lesser numbers of fulmar, kittiwake, razorbill, cormorant, puffin, shag and herring gull. The cliffs are, in addition, the only breeding site on the entire coast of England for black guillemots. Several other birds are known to use this site regularly for breeding and these include the tawny owl, sparrow hawk, peregrine, raven and rock pipit, which is known to breed in only one other site in Cumbria. The seabird populations are recorded as part of the JNCC’s Seabird Monitoring Programme. The site is known to be used by a variety of birds, including the rock pipit (Anthus petrosus) (only known to breed in two sites in Cumbria).

Birds

Seabirds

Status of seabirds: Improvement, with few or no concerns

(Baxter et al, 2011)

Status of seabirds: Declining situation since 2012

Status of food webs: Improving situation since 2012

(United Kingdom Marine Monitoring & Assessment Strategy, n.d)

Seabirds are bird species which forage at sea and breed on land. Some feed on the sea surface (eg terns, kittiwakes) and others dive and swim in order to feed (eg puffins, black guillemots). Long-term reliable monitoring and seabirds’ position at the top of the marine food chain and their responsiveness to factors such as weather, pollution and predation mean they can be used as an indicator of ecosystem health in the UK. Declines in populations provide warnings of declining ecosystem health, with breeding success also able to reflect factors such as food availability.

Seabird colonies are found at a number of sites within the Solway Firth, several of which support nationally or internationally important numbers of particular species.

Image; Black guillemot. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

There are 25 species of breeding seabird in the UK (British Trust for Ornithology, n.d.b), and an estimated 8 million seabirds breed on UK shores each year.

Image: Oystercatcher. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

Birds

Seabirds - Population Trends

Coordinated by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), the Seabird Monitoring Programme is an on-going annual monitoring programme of species of seabird which regularly breed in Britain. As already mentioned, there are 25 species of seabird which regularly breed in the UK. This monitoring programme was established in 1986 with 25 species of seabird;

northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)
Manx shearwater (Pufinus puffinus)
European storm-petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus)
Leach’s storm-petrel (Hydrobates leucorhous)
northern gannet (Morus bassanus)
great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)
European shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis)
Arctic skua (Stercorarius parasiticus)
great skua (Stercorarius skua)
blacklegged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)
black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus)
Mediterranean gull (Larus melanocephalus)
common gull (Larus canus)
lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus)
herring gull (Larus argentatus)
great black-backed gull (Larus marinus)
little tern (Sternula albifrons)
Sandwich tern (Thalasseus sandvicensis)
common tern (Sterna hirundo)
roseate tern (Sterna dougalii)
Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea)
guillemot (Uria aalge)
razorbill (Alca torda)
black guillemot (Cepphus grylle)
Atlantic puffin (Fratercula arctica)

(Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2021)

(N.B. Not all species are present and/or breeding in the Solway Firth but are included as overall indicators of wider ecosystem health).

Image; Gannets on Scare Rocks. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

In terms of the distribution of UK breeding seabirds, the majority of breeding seabirds can be found in Scotland.

In Scotland, half of all breeding seabirds have been lost since the 1980’s, including 80% of Arctic skuas (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, n.d). According to the RSPB, between 2000-2008, the UK lost ~600,000 seabirds -9% the entire breeding population (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, 2016).

Seabird abundance in the UK has been declining in the last 20 years. However, recent data shows that since 2011 population levels have begun to stabilise despite remaining lower than the abundance in 1986.

Some highlighted points raised in the recent assessment of Scotland’s seas (Moffat et al, 2020) looks at the time series of 1986 compared to a 2018 estimate;

‘since 2011 the index of number of breeding seabirds has remained stable following a previous period of sustained decline. By 2018, breeding numbers were 56% of the 1986 level. The long period of decline for the 11 species included in the index occurred between 1990 and 2011
since 2011 the index of breeding success has fluctuated but the average value is close to the long-term average from 1986 to 2018. From 1990 to 2000 breeding success was generally above the long-term average, and between 2000 and 2010 mostly below the average. Data from 12 species are included in the breeding success index.
as the breeding success index is based on the relative value compared to the 1986 baseline, it does not necessarily follow that values above average reflect a level of breeding success that will lead to an increase in the number of seabirds.’ (Moffat at al, 2020).

It was reported in Scotland’s Marine Assessment (2020) that throughout Scotland, out of the 11 species included in the index, ‘there are notable increases over the 2011 to 2018 period for terns (both common and Arctic terns show significant increase in numbers), black guillemot and northern gannet, which has been increasing for some time. The 2018 index value for black guillemot is unexpectedly high and is the first time since monitoring started that the species has produced a value above the long-term baseline. Common guillemot shows a steady increasing trend, which has seen it almost regain the levels at the start of the index period. For common tern this increase has been sufficient for it to return to numbers above the 1986 baseline, but for Arctic tern, which is a much more common and widespread species in Scotland, the recent increase still leaves numbers below those found in 1986. Arctic skua, black-legged kittiwake, common gull, great black-backed gull and northern fulmar all show declines over the period‘ (Moffat at al, 2020).

The productivity refers to the success of raising chicks through monitoring chicks fledged per breeding pair. According to Scotland’s Marine Assessment, compared to abundance; ‘productivity is more variable. Since 2011 the productivity index has varied between 66 and 87% of the 1986 baseline, with the long-term average over the period 1986 to 2016 being around 76% of the 1986 baseline. Breeding success across the time series varied for the 12 species assessed. In 2017, breeding success was above the long-term average for black-legged kittiwake and herring gull. Arctic skua, Atlantic puffin, common tern, great skua, little tern and northern fulmar had lower breeding success. Breeding success of all other species was around the long-term average.’ (Moffat at al, 2020).

Two key areas for breeding seabird populations in the Solway Firth are the Mull of Galloway (Scotland) and the cliffs of St Bees Head (England). Both sites are RSPB Reserves.

Famous for being the southernmost point of Scotland, the isolated cliffs topped with clifftop grassland and heath the Mull of Galloway has excellent habitat for seabird species. In the middle of the mouth of Luce Bay there are several small rocky outcrop islets. These are the Scar Rocks, an outlying part of the RSPB Reserve with a ~4,000 strong gannet colony. Locally important colonies include black guillemots, guillemots, kittiwakes. It is also home to puffins (Fratercula arctica) and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus).

The only cliff-nesting seabird colony in northwest England is located on the coast from Whitehaven to St Bees Head. The St Bees Head area supports seabird species such as fulmars, herring gulls, guillemots, kittiwakes and razorbills. This is the only English breeding site of black guillemot in England.

Useful maps of Cumbrian bird distributions can be found here.

Image; Fulmars on Balcary cliffs. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

Birds

The Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) UK Seabird Monitoring Programme species population trends

JNCC UK Seabird Monitoring Programme species population trends
Species	Population change (%) Red: Decline Green: Increase change between censuses in 1984-85 and 2003-04. *change between censuses in 2003-04 and 2013–2015. n/a: insufficient sample size or extremely wide confidence limits, so figure not provided.
Species	IUCN Global status	IUCN European status	European Union (EU27) Red List of Birds status	Population change (%) 1969-70 to1985-88	Population change (%) 1985-88 to 1998-2002	Population change (%) 2000 – 2019
Arctic skua (Stercorarius parasiticus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Endangered	+226	-37	-70
Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+50	-31	+60
Atlantic puffin (Fratercula arctica)	Vulnerable	Endangered	Near Threatened	+15	+19	n/a
Black guillemot (Cepphus grylle)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Vulnerable	n/a	+3**	n/a
Black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+5	0	+26
Black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Endangered	+24	-25	-29
Common gull (Larus canus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+25	+36	n/a
Common tern (Sterna hirundo)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+9	-9	-3
European shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Near Threatened	+21	-27	-40
European storm-petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	n/a	n/a	n/a
Great black-backed gull (Larus marinus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	-7	-4	-23
Great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+9	+10	+16
Great skua (Stercorarius skua)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+148	+26	n/a
Guillemot (Uria aalge)	Least Concern	Near Threatened	Least Concern	+77	+31	+60
Herring gull (Larus argentatus)	Least Concern	Near Threatened	Vulnerable	-48	-13	n/a
Leach’s storm-petrel (Hydrobates leucorhous)	Vulnerable	–	Vulnerable	n/a	n/a	n/a
Lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+29	+40	n/a
Little tern (Sternula albifrons)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+58	-23	-28
Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	n/a	n/a	n/a
Mediterranean gull (Larus melanocephalus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	n/a	+10,900	+327
Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)	Least Concern	Endangered	Vulnerable	+77	-3	-33
Northern gannet (Morus bassanus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+39	+39*	+34**
Razorbill (Alca torda)	Near Threatened	Near Threatened	Least Concern	+16	+21	+37
Roseate tern (Sterna dougallii)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	-66	-83	+125
Sandwich tern (Thalasseus sandvicensis)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	+33	-15	+5 (This figure has been revised since the initial release on 29 April 2021 to take into account additional data received since then by the SMP.)

Table data sources; Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2021), International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (n.d.), BirdLife International (2015).

Birds

Seabird populations in the Solway Firth

Common Solway Estuary seabirds Solway Estuary (Cross-border) core count populations of the most common Solway seabird species. Pale blue –Exceeds British national importance threshold (based on most recent report) Lilac –Exceeds international importance threshold (based on most recent report) Orange – Supplementary counts included where available (N.B. the table highlights some of the most common seabird species found in the ‘Solway Estuary’, readers are encourage to view the full list of species on the BTO website.)
Species	Year of count
Species	2006/ 2007	2007/ 2008	2008/ 2009	2009/ 2010	2010/ 2011	2011/ 2012	2012/ 2013	2013/ 2014	2014/ 2015	2015/ 2016	2016/ 2017	2017/ 2018	2018/ 2019	2019/ 2020
Black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus)	3,251	1,496	2,147	3,679	2,935	4,104	3,224	3,411	3,050	2,217	3,486	2,421	2,569	5,618
Common gull (Larus canus)	2,463	2,704	1,093	1,705	1,203	2,134	5,866	2,152	900	1,930	2,535	1,381	1,064	3,104
Herring gull (Larus argentatus)	949	814	692	1,945	1,451	1,252	2,833	4,131	718	2,097	2,197	1,837	2,333	1,026
Lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus)	4,705	202	386	227	5,960	607	1,586	418	215	368	374	246	1,043	1,147
Sandwich tern (Thalasseus sandvicensis)	213	162	222	211	88	423	284	821	170	495	153	325	116	174
Great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)	485	455	342	364	508	388	427	700	441	388	200	229	172	175
Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)	2	0	0	0	25	60	661	60	30	8	70	80	350	170
Great black-backed gull (Larus marinus)	43	38	29	131	162	122	85	54	110	70	108	155	149	99
Common tern (Sterna hirundo)	35	21	24	14	5	97	19	19	49	6	6	9	4	8

Table Source; Frost, et al. (2020)
Data released under the Open Government Licence v3.0. Contains Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS) data from Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20 © copyright and database right 2020. WeBS is a partnership jointly funded by the BTO, RSPB and JNCC, in association with WWT, with fieldwork conducted by volunteers.
Supplementary counts highlighted in orange from the Goose and Swan Monitoring Partnership (GSMP)

Birds

Seabirds - Recent Trends

The Joint Nature Conservation Committee summarises some of the recent UK seabird trends for the UK biodiversity indicator C5; ‘the indicator was broadly stable from 1986 until the mid-2000s after which seabird numbers started to decline. More recently the unsmoothed breeding seabird index has increased, by 7% between 2012 and 2017. One of the 13 seabird species has increased since the beginning of the index in 1986; razorbill numbers have more than doubled. Two species have declined strongly since 1986; Arctic skua by 82% and herring gull by 59%. Both species also show strong declines in the short term. Since 1986 black-legged kittiwakes have declined by 57%, this change linked to climate change impacts on marine food webs, and fishery pressures. However, there has been some improvement in the short term, during which black-legged kittiwakes have shown a weak increase, of 9% between 2012 and 2017. Nearly half of the 13 seabird species have increased strongly between 2012 and 2017; razorbill, Arctic tern, common tern, great black-backed gull and great cormorant by 46%, 44%, 41%, 33%, and 32% respectively. Numbers of little tern have decreased strongly by 30% in the short term, although the long-term trend is a weak decline.’ (Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2020b). The background datasheet on species, percentage changes, and trends for the UK biodiversity indicator C5 ‘Birds of the wider countryside and at sea’ is available here.

According to the numbers and breeding success of seabirds in Scotland (1986-2017) biodiversity indicator in Scotland there is an overall decreasing trend for the numbers and breeding success for seabirds in Scotland. The indicator does not include all 24 species of seabird which can be found in Scotland but includes 11 species for breeding numbers and 12 species for breeding success. The species may have data available for either breeding numbers (yellow), or breeding success (blue), or both (green);

Arctic skua
Arctic tern
Atlantic puffin
black guillemot
black-legged kittiwake
common gull
common tern
European shag
great black-backed gull
great skua
common guillemot
herring gull
little tern
northern fulmar
northern gannet
Sandwich tern
(NatureScot, 2020a)

Overall between 1986 and 2017 in Scotland;
• ‘The mean numbers of 11 species of breeding seabirds in Scotland declined. By 2017, breeding numbers were 68% of the 1986 level.
• Mean breeding success of 12 breeding seabird species has declined. In 2017 it was 7 percentage points lower than the long-term average of 74%’ (NatureScot, 2020a).

Image; Oystercatcher nest looking towards Hestan Island. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

Birds

Waterbirds

Status of waterbirds: Deterioration, with some concerns

(Baxter et al, 2011)

Status of waterbirds: Declining situation since 2012

Status of food webs: Improving situation since 2012

(United Kingdom Marine Monitoring & Assessment Strategy, n.d)

The prime food sources in the Solway for waterbirds are blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and common cockles (Cerastoderma edule). The tidal mudflats of the inner Solway offer an ideal place for roosting, and is one of the many reasons the Solway is so valuable for waterbirds.

The Svalbard barnacle goose is a well known winter resident of the area as the majority of the population can be found overwintering in the estuary. They arrive from their arctic breeding grounds in late September-early October and are initially concentrated around Caerlaverock and Mersehead where they feed on the merse and adjacent farmland and roost on nearby sea or mudflats, according to tides. As winter progresses some birds, often most of the population, make regular use of Rockcliffe Marsh for feeding and roosting. After the shooting season, the geese generally tend to range further afield, for example to Kirkconnel Merse and small groups to Burgh Marsh, though continuing to concentrate largely along the Scottish coast between Mersehead and Priestside. They depart for their breeding grounds in late April/ early May. NatureScot established the Scottish Solway specific, ‘Solway Barnacle Goose Management Scheme‘ which ran from 2017 to 2021 to help support sustainable populations of wintering Svalbard barnacle geese on the Solway while limiting agricultural damage and economic losses through a series of one-year management agreements. Out of the 35 holdings which are known to host barnacle geese, 16 participated in the scheme. More information on the scheme is available here. There is also more information on Svalbard barnacle geese provided by WWT, available here.

All data on waterbirds informs and supports the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands which sets the key targets of identifying wetlands of international importance, conservation and research priorities and knowledge gaps.

The Solway is an important place for both waterbirds and seabirds, is used by migratory and wintering populations and in 2015 the Solway Firth Estuary was noted as the 8th most important habitat for non-breeding waterbirds in the UK (Holt at al, 2015). Certain areas of the Solway are afforded protection (Ramsar, Special Protected Area (SPA), Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)), to conserve bird species and other features, alongside non-statutory designations such as Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, (RSPB) or Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT) reserves (see the page above titled ‘Birds in the Solway‘). RSPB Campfield Marsh is known for breeding lapwings and redshanks and wintering swans, ducks and geese in their thousands as well as large numbers of roosting waders at high tide. For more information on the variety of designations, international, national, and non-statutory, please see the Protected Areas section.

High-tide Waterbird Roost Mapping on the Cumbrian Solway Firth

In Cumbria there was work undertaken by Solway Firth Partnership in 2016 to identify and highlight local avian ‘hotspots’ along the Solway Estuary on a small spatial scale by providing evidence of the location of peak high tide roost counts and inform existing protection and management frameworks and measures. The Cumbrian side of the Solway is a crucial habitat for roosting waterbirds of national and international importance with a total of 43 major roost sites are present along the Solway’s South shore.

The disturbance on high-tide roosts is a key factor influencing the quality of a particular waterbird habitat. While the frequency and type of disturbance need to be taken into consideration to decide how substantial a given case of disturbance is, it is also important to consider the number and composition of species and their abundance at a site. It is therefore of critical importance to identify avian biodiversity ‘hotspots’ to avoid cumulative and long-term damage to the natural intrinsic and commercial value of the Solway Coastline, its people, culture and heritage for generations to come.

This mapping work took place from Workington to Rockcliffe Marsh in the inner Firth. Table 2.2 in this report provides Wetland Birds Survey (WeBS) numbers for the Scottish and English side of the Firth for 21 species of birds along with the five-year average numbers (2009 -2014). This is then compared to the GB and international importance thresholds. This table is helpful in illustrating the importance of the Solway for waterbirds (even though based on now outdated data), with the Firth showing numbers greatly exceeding both GB and international importance thresholds. For example, based on this data (2009-2014) the numbers of oystercatcher in the Solway were 748% of the GB importance threshold (3,200) and 292% of the international importance threshold (8,200) with average numbers of 23,942. Furthermore, table 3.1 displays peak roost counts for the Solway, Cumbrian coast. The table reveals that the largest number of waterbirds, 20,500 individuals, was counted in section 8/9 – Moricambe (Newton Arlosh)/ Calvo Marsh. The second and third most important sections in terms of total numbers are section 6 – Herdhill Scar to Cardurnock (12,510 individuals) and section 14 – Meolo to Mawbray (10,600 individuals). The overall total estimation of Peak Numbers at Main Roosts from Workington to Rockcliffe on the Cumbrian Solway was 87,425. See page 10 of the report for table 2.2 and page 13 for table 3.1, available here.

The conclusions to the report highlighted that there was no ongoing evidence from this study about the impact of disturbance on roosts present in the Solway. However, notably, even little disturbance can have major impacts on roosting waterbirds which critically highlights the need for further work. Overall, a correlation between undisturbed stretches of coast and high numbers of birds present was noted.

The full report is available here.

Image; Barnacle geese. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

Birds

Waterbirds - The Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS)

The monitoring of non-breeding waterbirds in the UK is essential to monitor the status and health of species populations and wetland habitats, and to conserve them. The principal monitoring scheme in the UK, providing a valuable health and status indicator, is the Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS) undertaken by the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO). The survey data provides important information to assess the size of populations (of non-breeding waterbirds), number and distribution trends, and also highlights particular sites of interest for waterbirds, such as within the Solway Firth.

Image; Dunlin. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

Core counts are undertaken monthly by synchronised volunteers, primarily during the winter months, at wetland habitats. This data is occasionally supplemented by WeBS low tide counts in estuaries, aiming to identify key feeding areas. Count coverage and sites are dependent on the volunteer groups who carry out the counts, their availability and location.

The count data summarised here includes species listed as species of qualifying interest in the Solway Firth SPA citation, available here. It does not take into account connectivity of sites and movement of birds between sites or from sites outwith the Solway Firth. For a full list of waterbird species present in the Solway Firth, please see the WeBS report. Population connectivity and interaction needs greater study.

Image; Whooper Swan landing. © Solway Firth Partnership. Photographer; Keith Kirk

Low tide counts also take place on the Solway Firth at Auchencairn Bay and Wigtown Bay. There are a number of sites around the Solway where numbers of species are recorded in the WeBS, and readers are encouraged to explore the ‘Numbers and Trends’ section of the WeBS online interface in order to explore the counts and data for each site, available here.

Solway Estuary waterbird features Solway Estuary (Cross-border) core count populations of SPA waterbird features (herring gull, black-headed gull, common gull and cormorant are features of the Solway Firth SPA but are seabirds and included in the seabird count table above), national and international significant populations (including supplementary low tide counts where available). N.B. the boundary of the BTO survey area is not the same as the boundary of the SPA Pale blue –Exceeds British national importance threshold (based on most recent report) Lilac –Exceeds international importance threshold (based on most recent report) Orange – Supplementary counts included where available (N.B. the table highlights species which are a Solway Firth SPA designated feature. Many species found at the site are therefore not reflected in this list and readers are encourage to view the full list of species on the BTO website.)
Species *Qualifiers of the waterbird assemblage	Year of count
Species *Qualifiers of the waterbird assemblage	2006/ 2007	2007/ 2008	2008/ 2009	2009/ 2010	2010/ 2011	2011/ 2012	2012/ 2013	2013/ 2014	2014/ 2015	2015/ 2016	2016/ 2017	2017/ 2018	2018/ 2019	2019/ 2020
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica)	521	437	856	1,460	1,270	846	3,100	678	905	653	446	225	340	770
Common scoter (Melianitta nigra)*	2	14	72	22	8	9	560	3	50	3	1,080	102	1	0
Curlew (Numenis arquata)	3,371	3,008	2,235	2,379	2,885	2,677	2,565	3,334	2,642	2,070	2,070	1,697	2,155	2,925
Dunlin (Caldris alpina*)	6,492	7,180	7,765	11,126	6,638	10,976	7,433	8,422	15,355	14,075	23,975	14,204	12,497	13,511
Golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria)	5,744	3,943	3,223	5,858	3,027	3,693	7,220	6,689	3,534	4,776	7,507	4,378	4,522	4,773
Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula*)	73	124	150	154	143	132	262	202	165	37	78	24	74	59
Goosander (Mergus merganser*)	29	25	50	70	66	56	45	38	57	75	41	48	54	139
Grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola*)	319	454	287	229	369	455	394	368	306	267	585	179	135	192
Knot (Calidris canutus)	8,893	14,385	13,300	6661	13,963	11,423	7,979	12,534	11,076	5,328	8,444	6,795	3,616	16,950
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)*	8,271	5,199	4,752	6,752	6,067	6,555	3,949	4,957	8,516	2,152	5,404	3,787	5,210	4,130
Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus)	30,343	29,063	14,932	23,223	27,792	23,399	28,880	20,728	30,251	29,596	30,332	20,243	24,225	28,963
Pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus)	23,313	5,005	6,075	10,500	34,120	13,314	12,655	11,282	15,088	7,004	12,996	13,010	16,921	6,800
Pintail (Anas acuta)	3,131	1,579	888	2,031	4,262	1,394	1,742	1,629	2,000	1,019	4,232	3,255	4,374	2,331
Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata)	11	11	7	9	5	11	6	6	29	2	3	6	5	8
Redshank (Tringa totanus)	1,801	3,134	2,617	4,113	2,546	1,866	2,567	2,237	1,742	2,148	2,552	3,278	3,013	3,190
Ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula)	572	353	704	1,304	1,008	745	902	977	5,626	1,697	1,562	709	584	266
Sanderling (Caldris alba*)	490	440	100	474	540	380	473	630	541	302	450	612	426	485
Scaup (Aythia marila)	1,060	500	396	4,000	1,080	2,032	2,000	5,265	2,701	1,404	61	464	476	577
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna*)	2,893	1,910	1,995	1,347	1,278	1,654	1,915	3,003	1,903	1,187	3,524	2,024	3,834	2,544
Shoveler (Anas clypeata)*	325	235	253	286	220	215	332	193	162	320	175	115	157	217
Svalbard Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis)	29,370	28,170	31,111	29,170	47,000	25,076	27,260	38,885	38,826	42,017	43,425	43,545	41,286	34,516
Teal (Anas crecca*)	6,354	2,340	2,250	6,662	7,233	3,302	5,141	5,256	6,160	5,597	3,112	2,231	2,923	2,924
Turnstone (Arenaria interpres*)	252	268	340	428	293	295	538	325	301	523	199	140	223	223
Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)	363	312	417	399	441	317	678	357	329	257	329	487	283	160

Birds

Waterbirds - Recent Trends

The WeBS has alerts for protected areas where evaluated species can be given a short-term, medium-term and long term alert of High or Medium alert score. The same page will also provide site and regional trend data for the designated featured bird species and non-featured species. There is ‘alert’ data available for Solway SPAs and SSSIs here (note that as of July 2021 the Solway Firth SPA is still listed as ‘Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA’).

Species evaluated for alerts in the Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA

In the WeBS Alert page the Solway Firth SPA is still listed as Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA and has limited bird species evaluated for alert status as it does not include the new birds included in the Solway Firth SPA. Some bird species included in the new Solway Firth SPA are listed under the ‘percentage change for non-features’.

	Species evaluated for alerts in the Upper Solway Flats and Marshes SPA Red –High alerts Orange –Medium alerts
Species	IUCN global Status	IUCN European status	European Union (EU27) Red List of Birds status	First winter	Reference winter	% Change
Species	IUCN global Status	IUCN European status	European Union (EU27) Red List of Birds status	First winter	Reference winter	Short term (5 years)	Med-term (10 years)	Long term (25 Years)	Since Baseline (1988/89)
Svalbard Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica)	Near Threatened	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	-64	-29	-83	-83
Curlew (Numenius arquata)	Near Threatened	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	91/92	16/17	-38	-36	-63	-47
Dunlin (Calidris alpina)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	64	61	20	40
Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	-67	-57	-74	-89
Golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	58	20	28	93
Grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	09/10	-28	-30	-70	-55
Knot (Calidris canutus)	Near Threatend	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	-15	-23	-34	2
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)	Near Threatened	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	91/92	16/17	-27	-57	-44	-27
Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus)	Near Threatened	–	Vulnerable	91/92	16/17	-15	24	-34	-21
Pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Pintail (Anas acuta)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Vulnerable	91/92	16/17	3	-6	78	82
Redshank (Tringa totanus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Vulnerable	91/92	16/17	1	17	-24	11
Ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	-47	37	4	3
Scaup (Aythya marila)	Least Concern	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	91/92	16/17	-52	-55	-71	-89
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	22	-26	-7	3
Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)	Least Concern	Least Concern	Least Concern	91/92	16/17	-14	-14	48	68
Waterbird assemblage	–	–		91/92	16/17	-3	4	-19	-3

Table data sources; Woodward et al (2019), International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (n.d.), BirdLife International (2015).

The UK Biodiversity Indicators Report (2020) highlighted wintering waterbirds in the UK had showed Little or no overall change in the short-term (2011/12-2016/17) but display a long-term (1975/76-2016/17) improvement. In the most recent year, however (2016/17), the population has decreased (Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2020b).

The JNCC summarises some of the recent UK seabird trends for the UK biodiversity indicator C5; ‘the wintering waterbird measure increased steadily from the 1975/76 baseline to a peak in the late 1990s and has declined since. The indicator in 2017/18 stands 82% above its 1975/76 baseline. The separate wader and wildfowl indices show broadly similar patterns of increase followed by decrease, although the change in the wildfowl indicator has been greater…. Pink-footed goose and Svalbard barnacle goose also increased; both by 7-fold. Amongst waders, 40% of the species have increased, 53% showed little change and 7% have declined since the winter of 1975/76. The indices for 2 waders (avocet and black-tailed godwit) have increased over 7-fold (avocet is only included in the indicator since 1989/90). The indices for ringed plover and dunlin showed the steepest declines, by 36% and 47% respectively, since the winter of 1975/76‘ (Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2020b).

The background datasheet on species, percentage changes, and trends for the UK biodiversity indicator C5 ‘Birds of the wider countryside and at sea’ is available here.

Birds

Conservation and Status

As already illustrated in the ‘recent trends’ for both seabirds and waterbirds, certain birds are also ‘Biodiversity Indicators’ to help indicate the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity policy is devolved in the UK meaning it is the responsibility of Scotland and England separately, developing environmental strategies independently. Indicators such as biodiversity mainly help track international responsibilities to progress and commitments. The UK is a signatory to international biodiversity commitments (such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and OSPAR convention), all of which require biodiversity measured over time to adhere to policies or targets within the conventions (Marine Scotland, 2021). For example the UK Biodiversity indicator C5 is a primary indicator for Strategic Goal B, Target 7 and Target 12 of the CBD Aichi Targets, and relevant to more goals and targets.

According to the JNCC ‘the UK indicators have a specific purpose for international reporting and were selected following consultation and agreement between the administrations. The indicators provide a flexible framework and a common set of methodologies which in some cases can also be used for country reporting’ (Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2020a).

As previously outlined, birds are the subject of many designations, conservation work, and are of high ecological and socio-economic value around the Solway Firth. Conservation measures such as SPAs, SSSIs, RSBP sites all help contribute towards the conservation of key bird species and important habitat to help bird species thrive.

Birds (seabirds and waterbirds) are assessed in monitoring progress towards achieving ‘Good Environmental Status’ (GEnvS) in the UK. Achieving ‘Good Environmental Status’ (GEnvS) in the marine environment is required under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) to provide more effective marine environment protection and sustainable use. Council Decision 2017/848 lays out the criteria and methodological standards on GEnvS of marine waters and specifications and standardised methods for monitoring and assessment.

In terms of defining what GEnvS is and how to reach it, there are 11 qualitative ‘descriptors’ included in Annex I of the MSFD to help each member state interpret GEnvS and illustrate what a marine environment which has GEnvS looks like. The descriptors 1 and 4 cover ‘biological diversity’ and ‘Food webs’ respectively and in the UK multiple aspects of the marine environment are assessed as part of these two descriptors. Achieving GENvS in terms of ‘biological diversity’ is measured through assessing; Cetaceans, seals, birds, fish, pelagic habitats, and bethnic habitats. The GEnvS of ‘food webs’ uses assessments of; Cetaceans, seals, birds, fish, and pelagic habitats.

As the progress towards GEnvS is monitored and assessed by experts and scientists, the failure or achieving of GEnvS provides a UK-wide indication for the assessed aspects of the UK’s seas. Four indicators are used to assess breeding seabirds and non-breeding waterbirds covering population size in addition to condition.

As of the most recent 2019 update the UK had not achieved GEnvS for the indicator for seabirds and it would not be achieved by the 2020 goal year; ‘The UK has achieved its aim of Good Environmental Status for non-breeding waterbirds in the Greater North Sea but not in the Celtic Seas. Breeding seabirds have not achieved Good Environmental Status’ (United Kingdom Marine Monitoring & Assessment Strategy, n.d).

In terms of GEnvS for descriptor 4, food webs, which seabird assessments contribute to, the status of GEnvS was ‘uncertain’ in 2019 with GEnvS being partially achieved and breeding seabird populations being in decline (United Kingdom Marine Monitoring & Assessment Strategy, n.d).

More information on GEnvS, assessments and progress is available on the Marine Online Assessment Tool from the United Kingdom Marine Monitoring and Assessment Strategy, available here.

Conservation

All birds, their nests and eggs are protected by law through the The Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981. It is an offence (with certain exceptions, for example, game birds are generally not covered) to intentionally kill, injure, take any wild bird, or to intentionally take, damage or destroy the nest of any wild bird while it is in use or being built and many more offences. The RSPB provides an information page on the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 which summarises the act’s protection, available here.

There is also the Birds of Conservation Concern most recently published in 2015 (with the previous reviews being published in 2009, 2002 and 1996). It is ‘commonly referred to as the UK Red List for birds, this is the fourth review of the status of birds in the UK, Channel Islands and Isle of Man, and updates the last assessment in 2009. Using standardised criteria, 244 species with breeding, passage or wintering populations in the UK were assessed by experts from a range of bird NGOs and assigned to the Red, Amber or Green lists of conservation concern‘ (British Trust for Ornithology, n.d.a), with green being of least concern and red of the highest concern. The most recent report shows that the red list of species of the highest concern is growing, with the addition of 19 new species, and the return of a previously red listed species.

Species which are not features of these SPA designations, but are present in the Solway Firth, also appear on conservation priority lists, for example the seabird Roseate tern (Sterna dougallii) and the Arctic skua (Stercorarius parasiticus) appear on both the UK BAP priority bird species list and the Scottish Biodiversity List, and are known to be present on both the Scottish and English sides of the Firth. Birds such as the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus) and Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicensis) appear on the Scottish Biodiversity List. The Sandwich Tern is another seabird which has known presence across both sides of the Solway.

Priority bird species and conservation concern status; UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP)* Priority bird species list available here. Scottish Biodiversity List (SBL) Scotland available here. Birds of Conservation Concern 4: the Red List for Birds available here. *Note; The UK Biodiversity Action Plan has now been succeeded by the ‘UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework‘, published in July 2012. Despite this, the UK BAP lists of priority species and habitats are invaluable for Scotland and England when drawing up their own biodiversity lists.
Features *Qualifiers of the waterbird assemblage	SPA Feature	Biodiversity lists in which species included	Birds of Conservation Concern 4: the Red List for Birds Status Green, Amber, Red Source; Eaton et al, 2015.
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica)	Solway Firth SPA	SBL	Amber
Black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus)*	Solway Firth SPA	SBL	Amber
Common Gull (Larus canus)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Common scoter (Melianitta nigra)*	Solway Firth SPA	UK BAP/ SBL	Red
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Green
Curlew (Numenius arquata)	Solway Firth SPA	UK BAP/ SBL	Red (2009 assessed as Amber concern)
Dunlin (Calidris alpine)*	Solway Firth SPA	SBL	Amber
Golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria)	Solway Firth SPA	SBL	Green (2009 assessed as Amber concern)
Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Goosander (Mergus merganser)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Green
Greenland white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons flavirostris)	Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren SPA	UK BAP/ SBL	Red (2009 assessed as Green concern)
Grey plover (Pluvialis squaterola)*	Solway Firth SPA		Amber
Hen harrier (Circus cyaneus)	Birds Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren SPA	SBL	Red
Herring gull (Larus argentatus)*	Solway Firth SPA	UK BAP/ SBL	Red
Knot (Calidris canutus)	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)*	Solway Firth SPA	UK BAP/ SBL	Red
Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus)	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus)	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Pintail (Anas acuta)	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata)	Solway Firth SPA	SBL	Green (2009 assessed as Amber concern)
Redshank (Tringa tetanus)	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula)	Solway Firth SPA	–	Red (2009 assessed as Amber concern)
Sanderling (Calibris alba),* non-breeding	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber (2009 assessed as Green concern)
Scaup (Aythya marila), non-breeding	Solway Firth SPA	UK BAP/ SBL	Red
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Shoveler (Anus clypeata)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Svalbard barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis)	Solway Firth SPA	SBL	Amber
Teal (Anus crecca)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Turnstone (Arwnaria interpres)*	Solway Firth SPA	–	Amber
Whooper swan (Cygnus Cygnus)	Birds Solway Firth SPA	SBL	Amber

Birds

Pressures

As already highlighted birds are sensitive to change and can be excellent indicators of ecosystem health as a result. Pressures on individual species within the Solway Firth SPA and Loch of Inch and Torrs Warren SPA as noted by NatureScot are included in the species tables within the ‘Birds in the Solway’ page above.

Pressures and sensitivities on seabird and waterbird species include;

Climate change related changes, such as temperature changes, salinity changes and sea-level rise. There are already indications that these are resulting in changes in the distribution of certain species with a general northeastward shift.
Collision/displacement may be a pressure on birds from renewable energy instillations or other marine instillations such as oil and gas platforms.
- Robin Rigg Wind Farm is the offshore wind farm (see Energy, aggregates, subsea cables and pipelines) in the Solway Firth. Since the construction of Robin Rigg Wind Farm there has been the publication of ‘Analysis of Marine Ecology Monitoring Plan Data from the Robin Rigg Offshore Wind Farm, Scotland’. There is a significant amount of information in this report which “represents analysis performed on ecological data collected before construction (during the baseline and pre-construction year), during construction and during the first two years of operation” (Walls et al, 2013) to record ecosystem changes resulting from wind farm construction and subsequent operation from four sets of survey data; benthic, birds, fish (non-migratory and electrosensisitve fish such as elasmobranchs ) and marine mammal surveys. The Environmental Statement predicted the collision risk for most species of bird to be >1% above the annual baseline mortality rate. According to the report; ‘the one species that exceeded this value was the red-throated diver, with a predicted annual collision mortality rate of 22.8%. It was felt this high value was due to a combination of a small population within the study area and it being a long-lived species’ (Canning et al, 2013). The Environmental Statement also predicted small displacement zones predicted, no significant disturbance, and very small, non significant, direct loss of feeding and roosting habitat. The Analysis of Marine Ecology Monitoring Plan Data from the Robin Rigg Offshore Wind Farm report details the survey methods used and the data collected (species covered; scaup, common scoter, red-throated diver, manx shearwater, gannet, cormorant, kittiwake herring gull, great black-backed gull, guillemot, and razorbill). The data was analysed to establish spatial distribution and collision risk for each species. The preliminary analysis suggested an increase in great black-backed gull and cormorant abundance post-construction, while five species showed possible decline, then signs of recovery in the construction and first years of operation (Canning et al, 2013). Manx shearwater and common scoter showed a potential decline in numbers (Canning et al, 2013). Few birds were observed flying at rotor hight, and those observed were in small numbers, meaning the risk of collision is low (Canning et al, 2013).
Disturbance, including both visual and or noise. Disturbance can be detrimental to several aspects of birds behaviour such as feeding, chick rearing and predator escape. As highlighted above, high-tide roosts are common along the Solway coast, which can also be an area popular with tourists, walkers and for dog walking causing human and dog-related disturbance. Unleashed dogs in particular pose a disturbance risk to birds along the coast with even leashed dogs potentially causing noise or other disturbance. Drones are a relatively new, but increasing, disturbance to birds.
Displacement due to socio-economic activities will also have negative impacts on the birds being displaced.
Fisheries impact bird species in several ways, through bycatch, habitat damage/changes, removal of prey species or discarding ‘waste’ fish and through competing with seabirds for foraged fish. The dynamics of food webs are complex and birds can face pressure due to changes in marine food webs through changes in fish abundance and other aspects.
- It is worth nothing that the North Western Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority (NWIFCA) has also established the St Bees Headland Voluntary Code of Practice, which has been implemented each year since 2018. This code recommends that no netting takes place within 1km of the headlands, and was established in order to help minimise the accidental entrapment of the many species of birds known to nest on the cliffs at St Bees Head. More information on the St Bees Headland Voluntary Code of Practice is available here.
Marine litter and plastic is a widely known issue of concern for bird species. Starvation, suffocation, drowning, false satiation (feeling full due to plastic sitting in the stomach, leading to starvation), internal injuries, malnutrition and impaired functions are just some of the impacts affecting seabirds and waterbirds because of marine litter and plastics. Seabirds may consume marine litter directly or feed it to chicks, mistaking items for food, or indirectly through consuming prey which has already ingested litter such as plastic.
- The severity of the issue can be illustrated through the OSPAR Ecological Quality Objectives project, which has found that in Scotland, 91% of dead northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) surveyed have plastics in their stomach. This is a growing issue, with estimates projecting that by 2050, 99% of seabirds will have ingested plastic (UN News, 2017). See Marine Litter for more information on marine litter and impacts.
Pollution or contamination by hazardous substances also poses a threat. Waders and divers are particularly vulnerable to oil pollution. Even a relatively small spill can have a significant impact if it occurs in a particularly important area for a specific species. Oil pollution is a relatively low risk in the Solway but the greater threat is the risk of radionuclide contamination from Chapelcross and Sellafield (see Hazardous substances).
Biological disturbance through the selective extraction of species (wildfowling) or the introduction/translocation of non-native species is also a threat (See Marine Non-Native Species).

Birds

References

British Trust for Ornithology. Wetland Bird Survey Data. Available here. (Accessed: 14.03.18)

BirdLife International (2017) European birds of conservation concern: populations, trends and national responsibilities Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. Available here. (Accessed: 20.07.21)

Cook, A.S.C.P., Barimore, C., Holt, C.A., Read, W.J. and Austin, G.E. (2013). Wetland Bird Survey Alerts 2009/2010: Changes in numbers of wintering waterbirds in the Constituent Countries of the United Kingdom, Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). BTO Research Report 641. BTO, Thetford. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.18)

Cumbria Biodiversity Data Centre and Cumbria Bird Club (2015). Cumbria Bird Atlas 2007-2011. Non-passerines –mute swan to lesser spotted woodpecker. Available here. (Accessed: 10.07.21)

Cumbria Bird Club (n.d.). St Bees Head. Available here. (Accessed: 16.08.14)

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2020). UK Biodiversity Indicators. Available here. (Accessed: 27.06.20)

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2018). England Natural Environment Indicators. Available here. (Accessed: 27.03.20)

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2014). Charting Progress 2. Marine Birds. Available here. (Accessed: 15.03.18)

Irving, B. (n.d.) Bird watching in the Solway Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Available here. (Accessed: 12.07.21)

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2020). UK Biodiversity Indicators. C5 Birds of the wider countryside and at sea. Available here. (Accessed: 12.07.21)

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2019). UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Available here. (Accessed: 07.04.20)

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2007). UK Biodiversity Action Plan Priority Bird Species. Available here. (Accessed: 07.03.18)

Joint Nature Conservation Committee and Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (on behalf of the Four Countries’ Biodiversity Group). (2012). UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework. Available here. (Accessed: 07.07.18)

Marine Life Information Network (n.d.). Species listed as Features of Conservation Interest (FOCI). Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.20)

Marine Life Information Network (n.d.). Species listed as ‘species of principal importance’. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.20)

Marine Management Organisation. (n.d). Marine Planning Evidence Base. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.18)

Marine Scotland (2019). Offshore wind energy – draft sectoral marine plan: regional locational guidance. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.21)

Marine Scotland (n.d). Scotland’s National Marine Plan Interactive. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.18)

Marine Scotland (2012). Marine Litter Issues, Impacts and Actions. Available here (Accessed: 23.10.18)

Mills, F., Sheridan, S. and Brown S., (2017). Clyde Marine Region Assessment. Clyde Marine Planning Partnership. pp 231, Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.18)

Natural England (n.d). Designated sites view. Available here. Accessed: 26.03.18)

Natural England (1995). St Bees Head Site of Special Scientific Interest. Available here. (Accessed: 27.03.18)

Natural England (1988). Upper Solway Flats and Marshes Site of Special Scientific Interest. Available here. (Accessed: 27.03.18)

NatureScot (2020). Priority Marine Features in Scotland’s Seas. Available here. (Accessed: 01.04.21)

NatureScot (2020). Scottish Biodiversity List. Available here. (Accessed: 04.05.21)

NatureScot (previously Scottish Natural Heritage) (2018). Biodiversity Indicator. Abundance of wintering waterbirds. Available here. (Accessed: 12.07.21)

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (n.d.). Mull of Galloway. Available here. (Accessed: 19.04.18)

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (n.d.) Available here. (Accessed: 25.02.20)

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (n.d.). St Bees Head. Available here. (Accessed: 19.04.18)

Solway Firth Partnership (1996). The Solway Firth Review, Solway Firth Partnership, Dumfries. Available here. (Accessed: 23.07.19)

Wetland Link International (2012). WWT Caerlaverock Wetland Centre Information Webpage. Available here. (Accessed: 25.02.20)

Woodward, I.D., Massimino, D., Hammond, M.J., Harris, S.J., Leech, D.I., Noble, D.G., Walker, R.H., Barimore, C., Dadam, D., Eglington, S.M., Marchant, J.H., Sullivan, M.J.P., Baillie, S.R. & Robinson, R.A. (2019) BirdTrends 2019: trends in numbers, breeding success and survival for UK breeding birds. BTO Research Report 722. BTO, Thetford. Available here. (Accessed: 05.07.21)

In-Text References;

Baxter, J.M., Boyd, I.L., Cox, M., Donald, A.E., Malcolm, S.J., Miles, H., Miller, B., Moffat, C.F., (Editors), (2011). Scotland’s Marine Atlas: Information for the national marine plan. Marine Scotland, Edinburgh. pp 191. Available here. (Accessed: 22.07.19)

BirdLife International (2015). European Red List of Birds. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.. Available here. (Accessed: 02.04.19)

British Trust for Ornithology (n.d.a). Birds of Conservation Concern 4: the Red List for Birds. Available here. (Accessed: 05.07.21)

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