Appendix 2 – Ecosystem services

Ecosystem services, or nature’s services, are the benefits which humans are provided with or can take advantage of from a healthy and functioning ecosystem. They may be tangible (something physical which can be touched etc) or intangible (lacks physical substance, such as emotions).

Marine ecosystem services are often divided into different categories;

  • Provisioning – tangible ecosystem goods, such as food, water and other resources,
  • Regulating – services regulating our environment, such as protection from erosion or flooding, carbon capture and storage, or
  • Cultural – non-material benefits, such as community identity, aesthetic joy, senses, recreation

There are also supporting services which essentially form the foundation without which the ecosystem services could not be delivered, for example dissolved oxygen in itself does not offer any direct ecosystem services, however is required in the marine environment providing a supporting service to underpin other ecosystem services.

The ecosystem based approach (EBA) looks at considering the entire ecosystem, including humans, when considering how to best manage the natural environment in a sustainable way to maintain the health of the ecosystem. Ecosystem services fits into the EBA concept, helping to consider and balance all needs from the ecosystem, good and services included.

The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) and the Marine Spatial Planning Framework Directive (2014/89/EU) require the application of an EBA to marine management in the UK. Marine planning throughout the UK will be aligned with the ecosystem based approach, with the UK Marine Policy Statement being clear that the process of marine planning will “manage competing demands on the marine area, taking an ecosystem-based approach”. An assessment of how the EBA has been integrated into marine plans in the UK and Ireland was published by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in 2017 and is available here.

The Clyde Marine Region Assessment provided an excellent assessment of ecosystem services provided by the Clyde marine area, sometimes supported by information from the Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership, and UK National Ecosystem Assessment and other sources, which have been used for the tables below. The tables have been adapted, if need be, for relevance to the Solway but are all from the basis of the Clyde Marine Region Assessment. For the original tables please see the Clyde assessment here.

This is a summary assessment, to learn more about detail about the ecosystem services provided by each kind of marine or coastal habitat see Fletcher et al (2012).

 

Image; Port Logan © G.Reid/ Solway Firth Partnership.

Appendix 2 – Ecosystem services

Clean and Safe

All tables, either directly or adapted depending on applicability to the Solway, from; Mills et al, 2017.

 

Bathing Waters

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Regulating Waste processing and water purification A combination of diffuse pollution and combined sewer overflows in the Solway Firth could lead to exceeding the capacity of plants and microorganisms to assimilate, buffer or process faecal contaminants. This would prevent effective regulating services and leads to poor bathing water quality. Increasing sea temperatures would exacerbate this issue (see Climate change -impacts on marine life and processes)
Cultural Sense of place and cultural heritage Maintaining clean and safe bathing waters contributes to people’s sense of place and interaction with the marine environment and maintains the cultural heritage of seaside bathing sites
Health benefits Clean and safe bathing waters enable people to safely utilise the marine environment for exercise and sport
Recreation and tourism Having good condition of bathing waters in the Solway Firth can support increased sport, tourism and recreation
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Elevated levels of E. coli in the marine environment can impact on effective storage, cycling and maintenance of nutrients essential for marine living organisms and for the support of all other marine ecosystem services

 

Transitional and Coastal Waters

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food Poor water quality could impact on the system’s ability to provide food that is safe to eat. Healthy habitats support a functioning ecosystem and stocks of commercially important species through provision of spawning and nursery areas
Regulating Waste processing and assimilation Enhancing the capacity for the ecosystem to provide waste processing and water purification services will ensure that provisioning and cultural services can be provided.
Cultural Recreational activities and sense of place Clean and safe waters are essential for recreational activities such as immersion water sports. Improvement in the condition of water bodies can potentially lead to increased biodiversity and productivity, resulting in a greater sense of place and increasing a place’s educational and inspirational capacity
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Coastal, transitional and river water bodies in the Solway Firth support primary production and nutrient cycling. Nutrient processing in sediment depends on invertebrates disturbing and irrigating the sediment and is fundamental to the survival of other marine organisms. Where supporting ecosystem services are functioning fully, they support stocks of commercially important species. Improving the ecological and chemical classification of these water bodies (including sediments) will optimise these supporting services and help improve overall ecosystem resilience

 

Dissolved Oxygen

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services An adequate level of dissolved oxygen within marine waters is essential to support marine life. Levels of dissolved oxygen within the Solway Firth are at levels which will support most ecological processes. If levels were to fall, oxygenation as seen in the Clyde could potentially be an issue

 

Eutrophication

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food Eutrophication can deplete the system of oxygen by facilitating excess plant growth. This can have a negative impact on biodiversity, e.g. resulting in the reduction of fish species. Harmful Algal Blooms can make shellfish unfit for human consumption although this has not been a major issue in the Solway Firth
Regulating Clean and safe water Overwhelming the marine environment with excess nutrients results in pollution and reduces the ecosystem’s capacity to degrade and process nutrients in the water
Cultural Health benefits and recreation and tourism Algal blooms, resulting from eutrophication, can be harmful to humans and restrict recreational and cultural activities and enjoyment of the marine environment. They have not been an issue in the Solway Firth in recent years however, warmer sea temperatures may lead to an increase in the tendency for stratification of the water column and could influence the developments of harmful algal blooms (See Climate change -Impacts on marine life and processes)
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Effective storage, cycling and maintenance of nutrients are essential for marine living organisms and support all other marine ecosystem services. Nutrient cycling encourages productivity and makes nutrients available to all other levels of food chains and webs. Draining through soil on land can dilute pollutants to safe levels by processing or assimilating them. If the ability of this system is compromised, pollutants can be transferred from the land via river catchments to the sea. This can impact the ability of the system to carry out nutrient cycling

 

Hazardous Substances

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food Hazardous substances in seabed sediments can cause chronic effects on marine organisms. This can impact negatively on community structures and in turn, impact food webs. Hazardous substances can also have a genetic effect by disrupting hormones and reproductive success. There are a few instances of biota having substances above the EC Food Limit in the Solway. Where hazardous substances exceed set limits, bivalve shellfish are not considered fit for human consumption
Regulating Waste processing and detoxification Hazardous substances can affect the ecosystem’s ability to provide water purification services, and can limit the capacity for provisioning and cultural services to be provided
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Marine sediment can act as a sink for hazardous substances, where these substances can degrade and detoxify over time. If an area of the Solway has been historically overloaded with contaminants, this may impact the ability of the sediments to perform this essential ecosystem service

 

Marine Litter

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food Plastic ingestion by fish and shellfish could have an effect on productivity and food chain dynamics, due to impacts such as false satiation effects, loss of body condition and death. Concerns exist over the impact of microplastics on Solway Nephrops (as seen in the Clyde and other areas), food chains, species and habitats. Research into the implications of microplastics on human health is at an early stage
Regulating Clean and safe water Presence of sewage related debris on beaches and in the sea from combined overflows may indicate contamination and poor water quality. This has been an issue noted in particular on some Scottish beaches in the past
Protection against coastal erosion and storm defence Mechanical removal of the strandline to remove litter can affect resilience of the beach to physical processes and extreme weather thus making them more vulnerable to erosion
Life cycle maintenance and biological regulation Plastic ingestion or entrapment by marine organisms can result in changes to life cycle maintenance and population dynamics
Cultural Aesthetic benefits of the seascape/landscape and sense of place Marine litter in the environment inhibits peoples’ sense of place, cultural heritage and appreciation of the aesthetic and inspirational qualities of beaches. It can detrimentally impact tourism and recreational activities. This is particularly true of litter sinks in the Solway Firth on the Scottish coastline
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Marine litter can contribute to creating anoxic conditions on the seabed sediments, which can affect nutrient cycling occurring in this zone. Entanglement of litter in strandline seaweed can also prevent its effective degradation and therefore nutrient cycling, whilst removal of the strandline takes important nutrient supply and habitat away from the coastal ecosystem. Accumulations of litter in the strandline have been reported in many locations along the Solway coastline, particularly following a storm event

 

Noise

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food (fish and shellfish) Excessive noise can limit the system’s provisioning ability by negatively affecting breeding, hunting and feeding success in a wide range of species
Cultural Wellbeing, recreation Many people reflect on the meditative quality of the marine and coastal environment; listening to the waves is an important part of the trip to the beach for many people. This is also true for diving enthusiasts. Marine noise pollution can negatively affect cultural services
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services The absence of noise is as important as noise itself. An absence of noise allows communication between individuals of a species, within groups and it facilitates hunting. Too much underwater noise will limit individual and group communication, potentially damaging or disturbing species and the ecosystem services they provide.

 

Spills and Accidents

Service type Benefits provided Comments
General comment – Implications of spills are dependent on the severity and substance of the spill. The Solway, generally, is subject to minor spills which are more likely to consist of fuel than dangerous substances, and can often be dispersed by natural means. If a significant spill were to occur in the Solway then there could be severe implications for services provided by those habitats and species that are affected.
Cultural Recreation and tourism Clean and safe seas are essential for marine sport, recreation and tourism activities.

 

Shellfish Waters

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food ‘Loch Ryan’ (in 2021) and ‘Silloth- South (Lees Scar)’ are Classified Shellfish Harvesting Areas which are currently classified as ‘B’ (although Loch Ryan will be classed as ‘A’ for the beginning of 2022). This means that shellfish harvested from these areas are subject to purification or relaying in a class ‘A’ area (or cooking by approved method). Purification, or relaying the shellfish, enables the supply of food, socio- economic activity and income generation despite the fact that the ecosystem service is not functioning to the required standard.
Regulating Clean water Shellfish provide effective waste processing and water purification services.

 

Waste Water 

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Regulating Clean and safe water If litter is present in waste water or due to overflow there is a risk of sewage related debris on beaches and in the sea from combined overflows, which may indicate contamination and poor water quality. Waste water treatment works reduce contamination in the water to acceptable levels before it is released into the environment.

Nitrate levels may be impacted by sewage discharges, the input of additional nutrients can lead to eutrophication
Cultural Aesthetic benefits of the seascape/ landscape and sense of place Sewage related debris in the environment inhibits peoples’ sense of place, cultural heritage and appreciation of the aesthetic and inspirational qualities of beaches.

 

All tables, either directly or adapted, depending on applicability to the Solway, from; Mills et al, 2017.

Appendix 2 – Ecosystem services

Healthy and Biologically Diverse

All tables, either directly or adapted depending on applicability to the Solway, from; Mills et al, 2017.

 

Intertidal rock and sediments

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food (including habitat provision for juvenile and spawning life stages) Saltmarsh, seagrass beds and mudflats provide nursery grounds for fish species. Cockle beds and blue mussel beds are found on both sides of the Solway in sand/mud flats but commercial operations for cockles are closed currently. Native oysters are present in Loch Ryan and are commercially harvested
Pharmaceuticals, fertiliser biofuels Seaweeds can be used for food, pharmaceuticals and other products but populations densities are not high enough to support any commercial harvesting
Regulating Sea defence Mudflats and saltmarsh provide important natural sea defence services by absorbing and dispersing wave energy. Flats and marsh are sensitive to sea level rise. Coastal sand dunes protect the hinterland
Clean and safe waters Loss of saltmarsh and native oysters may reduce water purification services
Climate regulation Saltmarsh and mudflats are important carbon sinks with high sequestration rates
Cultural Education and training Intertidal rock and sediments provide an important education opportunity as the area is the most accessible zone of the marine environment
Tourism and nature watching Beaches, saltmarsh, sand dunes, mudflats and rockpools provide tourism, recreation and education. The increase in marine litter and status of water quality may impact the provision of these services
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Seagrass provides stabilisation by rhizomes, input of organic matter and habitat formation.  Mussel and oyster beds provide species habitat. Mudflats provide foraging areas for birds. Rocky shores provide important resting and foraging places for many animals, such as seals, otters and wading birds, including oystercatchers, curlews and turnstones. Rocks provide hard substrate for seaweed and other colonisers to attach to

 

Marine Fish and Shellfish

Service type Benefits provided  Comments
Provisioning Food (fish and shellfish) The Solway is significant for scallop, lobster, Nephrops and crab landings. There are currently no commercially exploitable whitefish stocks
Regulating Biological regulation Different trophic levels are exploited by different species and at different stages within the lifetime of any one species. Juvenile fish will consume planktonic stages of other fish whilst adults may graze on seaweeds or predate on crustaceans
Cultural Cultural heritage Fish and fishing are an important part of the Solway’s cultural heritage. Many of the small towns/communities (e.g. Kirkcudbright, Isle of Whithorn, Stranraer, Silloth, Maryport, Whitehaven) have been or are still reliant on fishing as a core economic activity
Recreation The Solway is a popular area for recreational sea angling. Recreational Sea Angling supports local business as well as encouraging participation of local people. A wide range of species can be accessed from the Rhins of Galloway, and this is where most angling charter activity takes place. Good opportunities for tope, ray and bass fishing exist in Luce Bay, and also in Wigtown Bay. There are many fishing marks throughout the Dumfries and Galloway and Cumbrian coast for shoreline fishing (Recreational Sea Angling – Solway Firth Partnership).
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Fish populations play a significant role in supporting the whole structure of the Solway Firth ecosystem; for example, the nutrients they process, excrete and generate from their decaying bodies form the basis of some of the muddy substrate food webs. Fish populations have a role to play in regulating nutrient, sediment and carbon cycles

 

Marine Invasive Non-Native Species

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food (fish and shellfish) Marine invasive non-native species (INNS) may reduce an ecosystem’s provisioning ability. For example, Pacific oysters threaten the production of the native oyster fishery at Loch Ryan
Regulating Clean and Safe waters Marine INNS may impinge on an ecosystem’s ability to self-regulate
Cultural Tourism and recreation and wellbeing Marine INNS can reduce the amenity value of an area and can have a significant economic impact on the businesses affected
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Marine INNS reduce native species’ ability to fulfil their role in the ecosystem. It has however, been observed that some marine non-native species have fulfilled some ecosystem roles in their new range. There is concern that Japanese wireweed (Sargassum muticum) may impact full ecosystem functioning on intertidal rock and sediments in the Solway Firth however, there is currently no evidence of this

 

Protected Areas

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Cultural Tourism and recreation Protected areas provide aesthetic, educational and spiritual benefits, which can be enjoyed by visiting the site and through recreational activities
Wellbeing There is a non-use value of particular relevance to protected sites, whereby people value knowing that iconic species, habitats and structures exist without necessarily using them and that they will be available to benefit future generations
Research and knowledge systems Studying the changes within designated areas can increase our knowledge and understanding of the marine environment, the impact of human activities on it and how best to protect our natural and historical resources
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Protected areas safeguard important habitats, such as spawning and nursery grounds for various species of commercial value, such as Nephrops and scallops. Marine protected areas also have a role in supporting ecological connectivity and functioning within the Solway Firth and across UK seas and coasts

 

Birds

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Regulating Biological control As a top predator in their role in marine food webs, seabirds contribute to biological control as they feed on marine organisms
Waste breakdown and detoxification Scavenging birds contribute to waste breakdown at low levels, enabling species lower down the food web to feed on organic products. Herring and lesser black-backed gulls in particular have an impact on removing organic matter
Cultural Research and knowledge systems Long-term studies and research of seabirds and waterbirds has contributed to our knowledge of the marine environment and the impacts which may be affecting it and the wider ecosystem
Tourism and nature watching and sense of place and associated health benefits Bird watching is an important recreational activity around the Solway Firth and contributes to our knowledge and enjoyment of the natural history of the region. Visiting well-known seabird sites contributes to people’s sense of place and interaction with the marine environment
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services The diversity of seabirds and waterbirds found in the Solway Firth feed at different trophic levels. Some birds are top predators feeding on fish whilst others forage in the intertidal zone on invertebrates. All play an important role in ecosystem functioning and maintaining an ecological balance. Seabirds are consumers of primary production and transport nutrients from pelagic water to coastal breeding sites
Burrow nesting birds, such as puffins, Manx shearwaters and shelduck (in rabbit warrens), make a significant physical impact to improving soil fertility and structure. All seabird breeding sites are considered to be an indicator of marine health. If populations are in decline, this could be an indicator of problems or changes in the wider ecosystem or with other ecosystem services

 

Seals

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Cultural Tourism There is little tourism for seals specifically in the Solway Firth. However, there is general evidence that wildlife tourism in the UK is growing, for example, Seals Cave on the Mull of Galloway is known as a site that people canoe to see the seals
Spiritual and cultural wellbeing Seals have traditionally been part of Solway coastal heritage and an inspiration for folklore and mythology
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services There has been much debate over the relationship between commercial fish stocks and seal numbers. Whilst overfishing and pollution have depleted some commercial fish stocks, there is a question of whether increases in seal populations hinder the recovery of stocks. Science from other regions generally concludes that seals take less fish than predatory fish, humans, seabirds and probably cetaceans

 

Shallow and shelf subtidal sediments

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food (including habitat provision for juvenile and spawning life stages) Subtidal rock supports the common lobster and crab species, which are important for fisheries
Pharmaceuticals, fertiliser, biofuels Seaweeds can be used for food, pharmaceuticals and other products but population densities are not high enough to support any commercial harvesting
Regulating Coastal protection, carbon storage Biogenic reefs and seaweeds can capture and store carbon and provide coastal protection
Cultural Marine recreation Interesting and attractive features such as rocky reefs and cliffs can attract recreational divers
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Biogenic reefs such as blue mussel and maerl beds along with rocky reefs, provide a hard substrate which other species can attach to or a more complex substrate for shelter or feeding

 

Sharks, skates and rays

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Cultural Recreational opportunities and sense of place Although sightings are not widely common across the Solway, wildlife watching is a significant contributor to the tourism industry on both sides of the border
Knowledge systems Fish populations in the Solway Firth have changed in structure over the past few decades as have historical target species. Recreational sea angling groups have grown in popularity and have contributed to shark, skate and ray tagging programmes. This has increased public and scientific knowledge of elasmobranchs
Supporting services underpin other services Elasmobranchs play an important role in regulating food webs as top predators. Spurdog for example, feed on a wide range of both demersal and pelagic fish. Different species of skates and rays may separate themselves within the same ecosystem based on selective foraging behaviour and patterns of activity; this allows a high diversity of species to share different niches. Rays in shallow waters feed by disturbing seabed sediment, creating a ‘feeding pit’ to uncover prey. This behaviour results in the immediate clearing of infaunal invertebrates followed by accumulation of organic material, resulting in food availability and nutrient cycling

Basking sharks feed on plankton and can be considered indicators for marine environmental health and primary production. Having healthy and diverse populations of sharks, skates and rays enables supporting services which drive the provision of other services

 

Whales, dolphins and porpoises 

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Cultural Tourism Generally there is evidence that the marine wildlife watching industry is growing. The Solway has cliffs at the outer edges of both sides of the Firth (St Bees Head and Mull of Galloway) where the Firth opens into the deeper waters and larger area (albeit with other landmasses around the Irish Sea) which offer potential to see larger species passing by the Firth.
Spiritual and cultural well-being Cetaceans have traditionally been part of UK maritime heritage
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Cetaceans have an important role as predators within the food web. Dolphins and porpoises have teeth and feed mainly on fish and squid. Baleen whales, e.g. the minke whale, eat small fish, krill and copepods by taking in large volumes of water into their mouths and sieving the food out using their baleen plates. Cetacean carcasses provide a source of food for many other marine species. The full role of cetaceans within the ecosystem is still not completely understood.

 

Subtidal Rock

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food and habitat for nursery grounds Subtidal rock supports the European lobster and crab species which are important to fisheries
Pharmaceuticals, fertiliser, biofuels Seaweed harvesting is not present at a commercial scale in the Solway but it can be harvested/cultivated for food, additives, chemicals, cosmetics and some health products
Regulating Coastal protection and carbon storage Biogenic reefs and seaweeds can capture and store carbon, and provide coastal protection
Cultural Marine recreation Interesting and attractive features such as species associated with kelp beds can attract recreational divers
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Rocky substrate and biogenic reefs provide a surface for other species to attach to or use for shelter or feeding

 

All tables, either directly or adapted depending on applicability to the Solway, from; Mills et al, 2017.

Appendix 2 – Ecosystem services

Physical

All tables, either directly or adapted depending on applicability to the Solway, from; Mills et al, 2017.

 

Climate Change – Impacts on marine life and processes

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food (fish and shellfish) Some cold-water species are migrating northwards into deeper and colder waters. Warmer waters are correlated with poor conditions for e.g. cod larvae and growth. Whitefish stocks are low in the Solway and models suggest that cod stocks in the Celtic and Irish Seas may disappear by 2100. New fisheries may develop in the longer term for new warmer water species e.g. velvet crab. Ocean acidification may pose a threat to shellfish fisheries e.g. scallops and cockles, including impacts to spawning grounds but more research is required. Farmed species e.g. native oyster may become more susceptible to a wider variety of diseases
Regulating Clean and safe waters Greater opportunity for water column stratification may influence the development of harmful algal blooms. Changes to phytoplankton are likely to affect carbon sequestration and the ability of the marine environment to store carbon. Most bacterial Vibrio species (which can cause gastroenteritis and septicaemia) grow in warm seas (>15oC). Increasing sea temperatures may increase the presence of harmful bacteria, which is particularly a problem for bathing waters
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Climate change could change the type, amount, location and timing of phyto- and zooplankton production. This could impact biogeochemical cycling. Overall, there has been a decline in cold-water plankton species and an increase in less nutritional and less abundant subtropical species. Species that feed on plankton, including fish have life cycles tied to specific species of plankton. There is evidence that warming has influenced the timing of fish migration and spawning

 

Climate change – Sea level rise and coastal flooding

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food (habitat provision, including for juvenile and spawning life stages) Sea level rise could threaten the ability of saltmarsh and mudflats to provide nursery grounds for different species, including birds and juvenile fish
Regulating Sea defence Loss of saltmarsh may reduce the provision of important natural sea defence services. Mudflats also provide a natural sea defence by absorbing wave energy and are an important sink for organic material. Coastal sand dunes can protect the land behind them from wind and waves. Any future seaweed harvesting should ensure no loss of natural coastal protection
Clean and Safe waters Loss of saltmarsh may reduce water purification services, i.e. breaking down waste and detoxifying water
Climate regulation (carbon capture and storage) Saltmarsh is a carbon sink helping to capture and store carbon.
Cultural Tourism and wildlife watching Careful planning along the coastline using natural defence where possible could reduce the overall costs of coastal defence and provide increased opportunities for: tourism, recreation, education and research
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services

 

 Any reduction in the extent and condition of saltmarsh could impact the ability of the habitat to provide water cycling, soil formation, nutrient production, primary production

 

Landscape/Seascape

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Cultural Health and wellbeing, tourism,  aesthetics and heritage Spending time by the sea has been recognised for its benefits to health and wellbeing. The seascape has aesthetic properties that continually inspire literature and art. Local residents and visitors take great pride in the views across the border from both sides of the Solway coastline

 

Seabed and coastal geology

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Provisioning Food (fish and shellfish) Solway geology offers the habitat necessary for shellfish (scallops, etc) to thrive, supporting the Scottish and English fishing industries within the Firth.
Regulating Clean water and sediments Sediments play an important role in waste breakdown and detoxification (however can also store hazardous substances. Natural and anthropogenic activities carried out in the marine environment have the potential to remobilise contaminated sediments into the water column. Contaminant type, size of sediment particles and environmental factors, such as exposure to oxygen can all impact desorption rates and times, see hazardous substances). Sediments also act as carbon stores.
Cultural Tourism,
Recreational opportunities, nature watching		 The cliffs at Mull of Galloway and St Bees Head are prime bird watching sites, while also offering stunning seascape views. Rock climbing is an activity often undertaken on the cliff faces around the Solway. Fossils can also be found on both the English and Scottish coasts of the Solway, providing another geological draw for locals and tourists.
 Cultural heritage, and sense of place Geological features provide a sense of place, offering the rationale and inspiration for place names, folklore, and history, which also contribute to tourism.
Supporting services underpin the provision of other services Seabed geology forms the basis of the benthic habitats and source material for sediments. The underlying geology also informs the topography of the seabed and plays a significant role in tidal dynamics. The seabed contains nutrients and minerals that form the basis of the food chain.

 

Water Circulation

Service type Benefits provided Comments
Water circulation

 

 Water circulation contributes to nutrient cycling and mixing and facilitates the transport of propagules (plant seeds or spores) and distribution of plankton and larvae

 

All tables, either directly or adapted depending on applicability to the Solway, from; Mills et al, 2017.

Appendix 2 – Ecosystem services

References

WWF (2017). Delivering ecosystem-based marine spatial planning in practice: An assessment of the integration of the ecosystem approach into UK and Ireland Marine Spatial Plans. Pp. 1-132. Available here. (Accessed: 14.03.21)

 

In-Text References;

Fletcher, S., Saunders, J., Herbert, R., Roberts, C. & Dawson, K. (2012). Description of the ecosystem services provided by broad-scale habitats and features of conservation importance that are likely to be protected by Marine Protected Areas in the Marine Conservation Zone Project area. Natural England Commissioned Reports, Number 088. Available here. (Accessed: 14.03.21)

Mills, F., Sheridan, S. and Brown S. (2017). Clyde Marine Region Assessment. Clyde Marine Planning Partnership. pp 231. Available here. (Accessed: 14.05.18)

 

Image; Thrift on the cliffside. © G.Reid/ Solway Firth Partnership.